HEALTH
PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
Health psychology is the sub field of psychology devoted to
understanding how psychological and social variables affect
health and how we respond when we become ill. Health psychologists
focus on how emotions, social factors, and behaviour influence
health and illness. (Davis and Palladino, 2002). Modern day
societies, which may be rightly termed as individualistic
and materialistic, have an important role to play in the development
of behaviours and attitude which has resulted in diseases
such as cancer and heart disease, which are not contagious.
In fact, modern medicine with its advancement in scientific
technology has been able to cure contagious diseases such
influenza, tuberculosis and pneumonia. However, post-modern,
industrial societies have given birth to diseases, which are
related to behaviours and attitudes rather than biological
features. An assessment of such variables provide for an interesting
causality about the shape and manner in which the present
day world is constructed and the way that human life is shaping
in response to the hazards of everyday life. Secondly, such
variables will be related to the case study of Steve in order
to provide a better understanding of the main features of
health psychology. Thirdly, in consonance with what has been
stated, prescriptive measures will be provided in order to
prove Steve’s health status and lifestyle.
The Major Variables of Health Psychology
The discipline of health psychology with its emphasis on emotions,
social factors and behaviour provides for the following variables
in order to understand the relationship between a human being
and illness. Before embarking on the variables, it is highly
pertinent to note that health psychology arose out of human
life as experienced in the developed parts of the world in
the twentieth century and thus is highly modernist. Whether
the discipline and its variables itself can be applied to
a Steve of the sixteenth century provides for an interesting
comparative analysis, sadly, which is not our concern here.
The following variables are important in terms of how health
psychologists point to illnesses in modern times and the remedies
that they prescribe: stress, posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), hassles, and psychoneuroimmunology. A brief outline
of these variables will make the picture clearer.
The word stress did not come into widespread social discourse
until 1936 when a Canadian endocrinologist, Hans Selye published
a book called, The Stress of Life (1978). Selye defined stress
as the non-specific response of the body to any demand. Stress
can manifest itself in physiological changes such as fatigue,
loss of appetite and fever and in some cases, moments of extreme
silence. The sources of stress can be many in the contemporary
world, such as natural catastrophes and major life events
such as loss of a loved one or a job in quick time.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are events which go far
beyond our usual experience and have a huge impact, for example
being raped or observing a violent death or an incident such
as September 11, which according to the website of the American
Psychological Association has changed peoples view on destiny.
(www.apa.org). The primary symptom of PTSD is experiencing
intense fear while reliving a shocking event in dreams, flashbacks,
or intrusive thoughts. (Davis and Palladino, 2002).
Everyday hassles are minor everyday occurrences that are
distressing, frustrating and irritating; they include slow-moving
traffic, long lines at the tube station, and finding lost
keys etc. In one research investigation, researchers found
a correlation between the occurrence of daily hassles and
the presence of current and subsequent health problems such
as flu, headaches, and sore throats (De Longis, Folkman, and
Lazaraus, 1988).
Psychoneuroimmunology is the science of how the body defends
itself against foreign substances and how psychological and
physiological factors influence the immune system. The terminology
itself is designed to reflect on the interactions between
the brain, endocrine system, and immune system.
Steve: The Case Study
Before addressing the main question of how health psychology
and health promotion can be applied to improve Steve’s
health status and lifestyle, it is prudent to consider in
detail the objective health conditions. Steve is 38 years
old, has recently suffered a heart attack and thus would be
considered a very young patient suffering from such illness.
On the other hand, Steve is 5 feet 6 inches tall and weighs
82.5 kgs, which again is overweight according to prescribed
health standards. Moreover, he smokes twenty cigarettes a
day with 2/3 pints of beer every night without any form of
exercise and works 60 hours a week. This last bit of information
is interesting in that Steve believes that working 60 hours
a week is the only way to achieve happiness, wealth and prosperity.
This case study is a classical example of how behaviour, emotions
and social factors have played an important part in causing
heart attack. Let us first consider the body mass index of
Steve. Body mass index or BMI is a single number that represents
one’s height and weight without regard to gender; it
correlates with body fat. The index is a good indicator of
disease risk to a person such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension
and sleep apnea. The BMI can be measured as follows: 703xweight
in pounds/ (height in inches)2. Calculating Steve’s
BMI gives us a score of 30, which places him as a high risk
on the chart. (In order to access the scale chart, please
see, www.shapeup.org)
Secondly, smoking is one of the most dangerous habits that
humans indulge in. Considerable smoking over a period of time
clots the arteries by way of fat and increasing the risk of
a person to heart attack ten times more than a person who
does not smoke. According to Mc Ginnis and Foege, 1993, smoking-related
illnesses are the single most preventable cause of death and
illness in the United States. Moreover, despite repeated warnings
about the risks associated with smoking, about one in four
U.S. adults continue to smoke.
Thirdly, and most interestingly, Steve prefers to work 60
hours a week because he believes that this will bring him
happiness, wealth and prosperity. This factor more than anything
else makes us understand the importance of social and cultural
factors in causing tension and illnesses. As stated earlier,
post-modern industrial societies, based on individualism,
materialism and consumerism associate happiness and prosperity
with material things. On the other hand, in communal societies
of the Orient, happiness and prosperity are more part of a
family living together and sharing the good and bad times
of the family and thus, providing support and comfort for
all members. Thus, giving added preference to material values
and a consumerist mindset predisposes Steve to accumulate
more and more but in the end, his health suffers and as a
result, happiness is not be found. In order to prove this
point of culture and social factors as harbingers of illnesses
and disease as well as happiness, it is pertinent to quote
an important research that was undertaken in the 1990s. The
question that the research was directed to related to the
low incidence of heart disease in Japan compared to the United
States. After conducting research on Japanese Americans, it
was ascertained that those who were described as “traditionally
Japanese” (spoke Japanese at home, retained traditional
values, and behaviours) had lower rates of heart disease that
were comparable to Japanese people living in Japan. The group
that was “least” Japanese had a three to five
times great incidence of heart disease. (Matsumoto, 1996).
Prescriptive Notions
Joseph Matarazzo (1984), a health psychologist, has offered
a list of behaviours that are related to good health. According
to Matarazzo, the following behaviours can have a positive
influence on health: a) non-smoking; b) engaging in 30 minutes
of physical activity every day; c) eating breakfast everyday;
d) getting your weight to a normal level; e) learning and
following a healthy diet; f) drinking alcohol but doing so
in moderation; g) getting the amount of sleep that the body
needs; h) using seat belts every time that we are in a vehicle;
I) not driving at excess speeds; j) women doing a regular
breast exam while men getting a regular prostate exam and
finding a physician with whom you can communicate with openly
and effectively.
Thus, it is evident from the list of behaviours above that
Steve’s case history was bound to lead him to a stage
of illness, which in his particular case manifested itself
in heart attack. However, considering Matarazzo’s list
of behaviours, it is not entirely clear how using seat belts
and not driving at excess speeds counts towards behaviour,
which promotes good health.
Regarding smoking, Steve can be made to quit this habit by
way of increasing information about the bad effects that it
causes. Moreover, with Steve experiencing a heart attack,
it is plausible to argue that this situation will lead him
to quit smoking and be more concerned about the condition
of his health and heart. In spite of that, the current available
methods of quitting smoking are a nicotine gum, a nicotine
patch and a nicotine nasal spray. I wonder how this can be
effective in reducing the ill effects of smoking, as nicotine
is the agent that goes to the brain, where it causes a release
of norepinephrine that increases one’s heart rate and
blood pressure.
Regarding smoking itself, there is another cause of concern
regarding smokers is that quitting smoking will cause their
weight to increase. This not a mere folklore and instead is
true. On average, mean gain about six pounds and women about
eight pounds after quitting; 10 percent of men and 13 percent
of women gain more than 28 pounds. The risk of gaining weight
is greater for those who smoke 15 or more cigarettes a day.
(Williamson et al., 1991). Why do people gain weight? The
primary reason is that smoking increases the number of calories
burned, which in turn suppresses body weight. After people
stop smoking, they burn fewer calories. If ex-smokers increase
their physical activity, however, they will burn more calories
(Rodin, 1987); limiting intake of foods that are high in fat
and sugar is also helpful. This puts Steve’s case in
the right perspective. If he would have quit smoking, which
would have caused an increase in his weight, this could have
led to advice or a self-realisation for exercise, which in
turn would have caused good health. Thus behavioural changes
in a person can lead to a situation whereby life is comfortable
and happy, not in the materialist sense of the term but more
in the sense of good physical shape as well as a less individualistic
lifestyle.
Thus, dietary factors are also very important and if coupled
with physical inactivity play a major role in five of the
ten leading causes of death in the United States, including
heart disease, some types of cancer, and strokes. That is
why; Americans spend approximately $40 billion per year on
weight-loss programs, primarily for diets and dietary foods
(Wickelgren, 1988). Dieting can be a very good habit to indulge
in for weight reduction. Similarly certain behaviours if adopted
can contribute to weight reduction, such as, eating more slowly
and discovering exactly how the food tastes, which allows
the body’s signals (example, feeling of fullness) more
time to work. Secondly, not all sugars are bad for us. The
fructose found in fruits and honey tends to make us feel well.
A piece of fruit can decrease one’s appetite. Thirdly,
reducing the percentage of calories derived from fat because
the body uses more calories to break down carbohydrates than
it does to break down fat. Fourthly, reducing cues, which
tempt us to eat, can be a good behaviour. Food can be stored
out of sight and this can be used not to shop on an empty
stomach.
Conclusion
‘Health is wealth’ is an old saying and one,
which is true and free of any time and space distanciation.
In modern day societies, it is very essential that we tune
our behaviours in consonance with our eating/smoking/physical
exercise habits so that the general health of an individual
does not suffer and there is happiness and prosperity all
round.
- BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Davis, Stephen F. and Joseph J. Palladino (2002).
Psychology: Media and Research Update, Third Edition. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
- De Longis., et. al (1988). The impact of daily
stress on health and mood: Psychological and social resources
as mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
54, 486-495.
- Matarazzo, J.D. (1984). Behavioural immunogens.
In B.L. Hammonds and C.J. Scheirer (Eds.), Psychology and
Health (pp. 9-43). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
- Mc Ginnis, J.M. and Foege, W.H. (1993). Actual
causes of death in the United States. Journal of the American
Medical Association, 270, 2207-2212.
- Rodin, J. (1987). Weight gain following smoking
cessation: The role of food intake and exercise. Addictive
behaviours, 12, 303-317.
- Selye, H. (1978). The Stress of Life. New York:
Mc Graw Hill.
- Wickelgren, W.A. (1974). How to solve problems.
New York: Freeman.
- Williamson, D.F. et. al. (1991). Smoking cessation
and severity of weight gain in a national cohort. New England
Journal of Medicine, 324, 739-745.
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