Psychology essays | Sensory Interaction
and Balance
ANALYSIS
OF CHILDREN’S LEARNING
Thesis
The process of language learning is considered to be one of
the most complex tasks, especially in regard to children of
3-5 years old, because it is in this particular period when
cognition, social interaction and language are formed. In
order to achieve good results, the specialists have developed
various learning theories and theories of play, proving that
they greatly contribute to language acquisition. However,
it is also necessary to pay much attention to the social,
psychological, developmental and cultural factors that influence
children’s learning.
Analysis of learning theories
Nowadays specialists identify four most important learning
theories: behaviourist theory, cognitive theory, social cognition
theory and theory of mind. Behaviourist approach was especially
popular at the beginning and middle of the 20th century, however,
further it was proved that this theory didn’t pay attention
to some important aspects of the learning process. On the
other hand, behaviourist theory has provided some valuable
findings. In particular, behaviourist researchers stress on
the conditioning of people’s behaviour. The initiator
of Behaviourism, Watson claims that learning is closely connected
with stimulus and response actions. Skinner supports this
idea, but goes further by applying to operant conditioning,
revealing the necessity of reward or punishment in the learning
process. As he points out, “The application of operant
conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is
the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which
students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural
environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which
expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behaviour which
would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance
of behaviour which otherwise never occur”[1] In this regard, it is necessary for a nurse to create certain
contingencies for Child X and Child Y from the case study,
so that they can learn something from each other’s behaviour.
Nowadays, behaviourist approach is utilised in education systems
of various countries, despite the fact that it has some inaccuracies.
Another learning theory that is considered to bring many useful
findings is the cognitive theory that is closely connected
with the behaviourist theory and the findings of the Gestalt
theorists. This theory points at the cognitive structure that
is created in a person’s memory, this structure keeps
and arranges certain events during the learning process. In
this regard, knowledge acquisition is not sufficient until
the information is perceived and understood. This means that
Child X and Child Y should perceive and understand some information,
and only then respond to it, thus, acquiring certain knowledge.
According to the cognitivist approach, both children interpret
facts and events, applying to earlier experience, such approach
contradicts stimulus-response learning that is a characteristic
feature of behaviourist approach.
Therefore, this theory proves that learning is closely connected
with the way the information is provided to a child, and the
way this child reprocesses these data. Cognitive approach
proves that learning is performed in several stages and that
it is necessary for children to interact with each other for
better learning.This is proved on the example of Child X and
Child Y from the case study, they perceive and reprocess information
better because of close interaction and play.Cognitive theory
also claims that the learning process greatly depends on the
kind of behaviour to which children apply,
some of the most important kinds are decision-making, communication,
getting and processing information, and problem solving. In
regard to Child X and Child Y, they apply to getting and processing
information that covers such actions as observation, detection,
categorising; to problem solving that includes analysis and
estimation; to communication that is revealed in advice, questions,
answers, information and instruction; to decision-making that
implies examination, choice, comparison. Therefore, in the
process of learning children apply to different kinds of behaviour
that allow them to better perceive and respond to specific
information.
The third learning theory is social cognition theory that
is proposed by Vygotsky. This approach points at the necessity
of culture for children’s development. People are closely
connected with culture, and children acquire language through
culture, their development is influenced by certain social
process and is formed by family, school and other people with
whom he/she interacts[2]
According to Vygotsky, culture affects children’s development
in several ways. In particular, culture provides children
with thinking and knowledge, in addition, it gives them necessary
tools with which they can communicate within society. In general,
social cognition theory reveals that culture performs two
principal roles in the lives of children: it teaches children
the essence of thinking and the ways of thinking. In this
regard, language acquisition should be based on the principles
of interaction and other social aspects, including the methods
to cope with biases. As is seen on the example of the case
study, each child has some prejudices towards certain aspects.
For instance, Child Y claims that only girls can play with
dolls, however, Child X tries to persuade him otherwise. It
is the task of the social cognition theory to evaluate all
social aspects that may have positive and negative impact
on child’s learning.
Theory of Mind is considered to be a comparatively new learning
theory that was developed in the 90s years of the 20th century.
It concerns the inability of autistic people to recognise
feelings and actions of other people. Autism usually occurs
in children of 4-5 years old, and it is considered one of
the most dangerous impairment of modern world. It prevents
children from interacting with other individuals on a daily
basis. Theory of Mind belongs to the cognitive approach, it
proves that common children are able to understand various
aspects of mind, however, this understanding usually occurs
not earlier than at the age of five[3].
So Child X and Child Y are able to understand each other’s
actions, when Child Y takes a car from the box and starts
to play with it, Child X understands that he wants to play
with cars, and she also takes a car. Therefore, children with
autism are thought to lack the Theory of Mind Module (TOMM),
as proves by Baron-Cohen in his research[4].
He develops a specific false belief task that evaluates cognitive
abilities of children. If this test is applied to children
from the case study, it will prove that they are healthy children
with good cognitive abilities, because they are able to understand
intentions and wishes of others, because they understand their
own wishes. According to the Theory of Mind, from the very
beginning children understand themselves, further they learn
how to reveal their emotions and separate themselves from
others. This is proved by the case study, when Child Y lines
the dolls to make a parallel line, Child X says: “Look,
now the dolls can go to sleep and mummy can feed them milk
and coco pops”. But Child Y says that he doesn’t
like dolls, because they are not like him. This is an attempt
of a child to separate himself from other things or other
people. At this age children consider that everything and
everybody should be like them, but if something differs, they
simply reject this person or a thing. The same occurs with
the feelings, they think that other people should know what
they want and what their thoughts are. All these aspects can
be especially seen through a play.
The theories of play and their contribution to learning
Since the 19th century specialists have proposed many theories
of play that contribute to the learning process. The first
person who points at the importance of play is Spencer, he
identifies three principal kinds of play: games with certain
rules, sensory-motor plays and artistic-aesthetic plays. Piaget,
Vygotsky and Freud follow Spencer, proposing specific theories
of play that prove that plays are really important for the
process of learning in regard to children. Each specialist
points at different positive features of plays. For instance,
Bruner claims that play helps to create an appropriate atmosphere
for learning and reveal different kinds of behaviour[5].
Applying these findings to the proposed case study, it is
obvious that being engaged in a play with cars and dolls,
Child X and Child Y show themselves in certain kinds of behaviour.
In addition, in such atmosphere of game, both children easily
communicate with each other, revealing their unique identities
and expressing their opinions towards certain things, like
toys with which they play.
Sigmund Freud, applying to psychoanalysis, states that with
the help of play children may show their fears and events
that occur with them[6]
This is proved both by Child X and Child Y who tell some facts
from their lives through play, for instance, Child Y claims
that he loves that car because his father has such kind of
car. This game with a car also helps them to teach each other,
Child X points out that a car belt is put on trousers, not
on a car.
Therefore, Freud proves that play helps to identify events
in children’s lives, problems with which they face,
abuses that they have experienced, inner troubles that may
prevent them from something important. Although Freud doesn’t
examine the role of play in the learning process, he manages
to find out that through play children try to repeat the situation
from their lives, so that to behave in a way they want, perhaps
contrary to their behaviour in a real situation. In addition,
he claims that game helps children to accept reality, and
that “the growing child, when he stops playing, gives
up nothing but the link with real objects; instead of playing,
he now fantasies. He builds castles in the air and creates
what are called daydreams”[7].
Winnicott is another specialist who supports the importance
of play in the learning process of children. According to
him, children usually create “false self” when
they want to preserve their ‘true self’, therefore,
game helps to recognise their “true self”. In
the case study both Child X and Child Y reveal their ‘true
self’, because they feel at ease with each other, they
do not need to protect their selves, to hide their feelings.
Winnicott suggests that play allows children to find their
ego without any real damage, he proves that “play is
universal, leads to group relations, it is a form of communication
not only with others but with the self”[8].
In addition, play reveals the wishes of children towards some
specific aspects of their lives. For instance, Child X likes
to play with a doll, this may mean that she wants to have
loving parents, and through play she shows this desire. The
findings of Virginia Axline are considered to be one of the
most valuable for the research of play in the learning process[9].
She points out that play is crucial for children’s learning,
it deprives them of such negative feelings as tension, fear,
aggression, etc. The researcher provides some recommendations
for those who want to achieve good results with the help of
play. Clark Moustakas supports these findings, claiming that
in the process of play, the behaviour and feelings of children
greatly change, if at the beginning they may experience negative
emotions, they gradually change and their emotions improve[10].
Nowadays play theories are separated into classical theories
and modern theories. The first group is closely connected
with the theory of evolution, while the second group –
with children’s development. Among classical theories
are surplus theory, relaxation theory, recapitulation theory,
pre-exercise theory and some others. And among modern theories
the most successful are psychoanalytic theory, cognitive theory,
interactionist theory, communication theory and Vygotskyan
theory. Surplus energy theory is proposed by Schiller and
Spencer, this theory points out that play allows children
to free surplus energy. Although this theory possesses some
ground, it can hardly be considered truthful, because play
has some purpose, and even if the energy is released, children
may continue to play.
This can be proved on the example of the case study, both
Child X and Child Y play together for some purpose, like communication
and interaction with each other, this doesn’t necessarily
mean that they want to free energy. G. Patrick has provided
relaxation theory, claiming that play helps children to cope
with stress and negative feelings, however, children may have
no stress, like in the proposed case study. Recapitulation
theory by Hall points out that it is necessary for a child’s
development to pass certain levels, and play can help to recapitulate
these levels, play allows children to copy some stages of
development, like climbing, running, that’s why children
like to play such games as shooting, hunting, hide and seek.
Hall proves that through play it is possible to find the primitive
instincts that have been missed. Pre-exercise theory by Groos
shows that play is aimed to prepare children for further adult
life, this can be especially achieved by team work and role
playing. Play helps to find appropriate instincts that will
give children the possibility to apply them later, however,
it requires much time and practice to learn them. Pre-exercise
theory, or preparation theory (as it is usually called by
specialists) explains the behaviour of Child X and Child Y
to some extent, however, this explanation also has some limitations.
Of course, in the process of play both children have learnt
some valuable lessons that they will apply in everyday situations,
but at this age they do not realise that such activity is
helpful for them.
In regard to modern theories of play, they are closely connected
with psychological principles. As was mentioned above, the
psychoanalytic theory of Freud points out that play helps
children to overcome certain complexities and reveal their
inner fear. The same findings are provided by Erikson. In
the discussed case study both Child X and Child Y can be evaluated
with the help of this psychoanalytic theory, in the process
of game they not only reveal some events from their lives,
they not only perform the roles they want to do, but they
also reveal their wish to control over the situation, to prove
that they are aware of everything. This is especially seen
when Child X cuddles the doll and when she wants to persuade
Child Y that boys can also play dolls, despite the fact that
he thinks otherwise. Piaget’s cognitive theory regards
play as a tool that is connected with the environment, this
can be achieved with the help of such processes as assimilation
and accommodation[11].
Play belongs to assimilation process, this means that Child
X and Child Y are engaged in cognitive behaviour in the process
of play. Further, as children grow up, their plays acquire
more realistic features. Thus, in play children can connect
with the environment, form it by their own wish and realise
some important aspects. Piaget points out that play allows
children to acquire such cognitive abilities as language learning,
problem solving and symbolic understanding. Another positive
feature of play, according to this theory, is the possibility
to experience certain feelings and emotions that will help
children to accept environment. It is obvious that Child X
and Child Y experience these emotions, and they allow them
to interact with each other.
Vygotsy in his theory of play points at cultural and social
context of play in the learning process. In other words, Child
X and Child Y play in accordance with certain rules that are
existed in society, in the play they reveal the rules that
they have observed earlier in the behaviour of adults. As
a result, the play helps them to modify their actions in an
appropriate way. In this regard, development of language is
especially crucial. In fact, Vygotsy’s theory proves
that children’s development in the process of play occurs
due to its collective feature. Therefore, if Child X or Child
Y appears alone, he/she won’t be able to develop in
a right way. To some extent this theory confirms to the principles
of the Interactionist theory proposed by Mead, this theory
proves the necessity of play for the interaction among children,
connection with the environment that surrounds them. The Interactionist
theory claims that in the process of play children perform
various social roles and are engaged in common activity. It
also considers communication to be very important for children’s
development. In this regard, communication theory by Bateson
points at this factor as well. The researcher states that
play is aimed at providing some learning to children, and
this can be achieved through communication in the process
of play, through various arguments and negotiations[12]
He introduces the term “metacommunication” that
means that children only simulate their activities, including
laugh and looks, and metacommunication may show them how to
rightfully respond to various actions of other children. Thus,
there are a great number of the theories of play, but no theory
can definitely explain why play has such great positive effects
on children, all mentioned theories are limited in their explanation,
despite the fact that they greatly contribute to the whole
learning process of children, providing various views on the
process of play. Language development and the acquisition of language
Examining language development and the acquisition of language,
it is necessary to pay attention to the relationship between
language development and cognitive development, this can be
especially proved on the example of the proposed play situation.
Language acquisition is considered to be the core of the cognitivist
approaches, all of them have made various attempts to examine
language acquisition, resulting in certain debates. People
communicate with each other with the help of language, therefore,
acquisition of the first language is especially important
for children, in this context, it is necessary to pay attention
to their language development. Some specialists, like Whorf,
connect language acquisition with the ability to think[13]
However, many cognitive specialists oppose this view, proving
that children are able to reflect before talking[14].
They prove that, according to cognitive findings, children
think in certain images and specific logical judgements. In
this regard, environment is closely connected with language
acquisition, this point can hardly be considered disputable,
as it is based on earlier researches.
For instance, Child X and Child Y speak English, therefore,
it is obvious that they are brought in Britain, if these children
are brought in China or Japan, they will speak Chinese or
Japanese languages, respectively. The detailed research on
language acquisition was initiated in the middle of the 20th
century, when the cognitive approaches emerged on the scene.
The first person who evaluated the relationship between language
development and cognitive development was Noam Chomsky[15]
In particular, he stated that language acquisition was closely
connected with innate modules that could be separated from
intelligence. However, such theory doesn’t explain the
reasons that children are able to seize a great number of
words at a time, unite them in phrases, although some words
may be really difficult for them and express their opinions
with the help of these words. This is seen on the example
of conversation between Child X and Child Y, it is obvious
that throughout their talk, these small children apply to
different words and phrases that they are taken from adult
talks. Their language reflects unique features that are obviously
utilised by their parents or people with whom they constantly
communicate, like the following phrase: “No silly Billy,
they are for boys too, cos mummy said boys can play with dolls
too”.
As cognitive science points out, language acquisition starts
with the acquirement of sound patterns. At the end of the
first year children can not only understand words, but also
to repeat them[16].
These are simple words, however, every child pronounces own
words that they perceive. Further, in a period of few month
language acquisition increases in a great speed, children
are already able to form word combinations and they understand
simple sentences. Later, they can form phrases that express
specific ideas. By the age of three, children possess certain
grammatical knowledge that allows them to make more complex
phrases. As some researchers point out, children usually perceive
the end of words and sentences, as they can be stored in their
short-term memory[17]
In this regard, it is also necessary to pay attention to conceptual
development of children, because this aspect may have a great
impact on language development, a child should learn a complex
semantic distinction and then he/she will be able to learn
the syntax of the phrase. This allows children to learn grammar
forms, in the case study 5-year old children know these grammar
structures, they know that the third person in the present
tense requires marker –s. For instance, Child Y claims:
“I love that car because my daddy drives it”.
In general, the phrases of both Child X and Child Y fully
confirm to right grammatical forms, they even utilise tag-questions:
“In don’t like dolls cos they are for girls, aren’t
they?” In general, the specialists point out that at
this age the vocabulary of children approaches to 2,000 words,
and in the majority of cases they apply to many conjunctions.
In addition, it is in this period when children are especially
inquisitive and they like to talk with other children of the
same age.
The factors that influence children’s learning
In real life many factors influence the learning process of
children. In this regard, social, psychological, developmental
and cultural factors are considered to be one of the most
important factors. Applying to social aspect, it is obvious
that children live in society, and it can’t but affect
their development, form their characters and certain principles.
Social theories of Vygotsky and Piaget point out that society
may have both positive and negative influence on children’s
learning. For instance, it may transform children in accordance
with its own liking, depriving them of their individualities.
In addition, low social positions may also have a negative
impact on children who may suffer because of this and because
other children may condemn them for such low social status.
Cultural factors usually have an impact on the whole process
of learning[18].
Sometimes children of different cultures or religions are
wrongly accepted by other children. If this attitude preserves
for some time, these children won’t be able to study.
In this regard, cultural factors are closely connected with
psychological factors. Various cultures have various values
and laws, and it is this difference that prevents children
to interact with each other that further has a negative impact
on their learning. Hofstede points at five aspects of cultural
differences: the relations between a person and a group, social
disparity, differences in gender, short-tem and long-term
impact, the methods of coping with uncertainty[19].
As a result of these differences, children are engaged in
constant conflicts with each other that are also aggravated
by individual reasons. In this regard, cultural differences
should be overcome both in families and in schools, children
should be taught that they shouldn’t raise against each
other because they are of different cultures.
Psychological factors are crucial for successful learning,
if emotional health of children is poor, if he/she lives in
the environment that has a negative impact on his/her psychological
state, then it will be extremely difficult for him/her to
learn in an appropriate way. Since birth, the attitude of
other people towards children forms their development and
psychological health. This is explained by unique system of
brain cells, therefore, it is necessary that the first five
years of child’s life are filled with the best psychological
environment, especially within a family, as a child spares
much time at home. Parents should pay attention to feelings
and emotions of their children, if they see that something
troubles them, they should talk with children and find out
the reasons. If this is not done on timely basis, then such
neglect may result in some psychological disturbances that
may have a negative impact on adult life of these children.
It is also important for parents to realise that their own
wrong behaviour may be another psychological factor that will
influence the process of children’s learning.
In the process of learning it is also important to pay attention
to developmental aspect. If parents want their children to
develop in a right way, they should spend much time with them.
For instance, it is obvious from the case study that parents
of Child X and Child Y spend time together, they speak with
them, read books, go to some places, therefore, their language
skills and general development are high. Such close interaction
with adults and with peers influences the development of their
brains and inspires them to learn. If parents enjoy doing
something with their children, the latter will certainly like
this activity, but when they reveal some negative feelings
towards certain activities, children will find these activities
unpleasant, and it is unlikely that they will do it in future.
In particular, parents have an impact on four principal aspects
of learning: skills, knowledge, attitudes about learning and
learned feelings[20]
In regard to skills, parents may teach children such skills
as problem solving, family life, self-help, in regard to knowledge,
parents are the first people who can inspire children’s
interest in knowledge and show the ways to receive this knowledge.
As for attitudes about learning, children usually imitate
the activities of people with whom they live, and, as for
learned feelings, it is especially necessary to teach a child
to perform something with the right feelings and emotions.
Conclusion
Applying to theoretical views and a specific case study, the
paper has discussed the relationship between language acquisition,
development and usage of play during the learning process
of 5-year old children. It proves that play performs many
important functions, allowing children to reveal their true
identity, it provides them with the freedom to act according
to their wishes, and helps to cope with some difficulties.
The discussed learning theories provide valuable findings
to the way the learning process should be conducted. For instance,
the behaviourist approach points at the importance of performance,
it proves that language acquisition can be compared with any
other learning process, in other words, children learn through
observing and assimilation. However, the cognitive approach
opposes this view, claiming that a child is an active participant
during language acquisition, he/she perceives and reprocesses
the received information and further responds to it. Therefore,
in the first theory the mind of a child is not important,
while in the second theory the mind is crucial for the successful
learning process. In regard to the factors that influence
children’s learning, the most crucial factors are social,
psychological, developmental and cultural, however, they do
not exist alone, in the majority of cases, they are closely
connected with each other.
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