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Psychology essays | Adult Behaviour, Early Life Experience

"How might an experience early in life shape aspects of adult behaviour?"
& "How useful do you think this model of causation is in helping a person to change for the better?"

Individuals learn the norms and conventional behaviours of their culture from the moment they are born via a process called socialization. Socialisation can be primary, secondary or tertiary. Primary socialization is perhaps the most powerful societal influence to be experienced throughout an individual’s lifetime and is basically the process of being taught, through parental guidance, the rules and expected behaviour of society (Fulcher & Scott, 1999). Further socialization, or ‘secondary socialization’ occurs when the individual begins school and receives guidance from both peers and teachers. Finally, tertiary socialization occurs much later and incorporates the way individuals learn the norms and rules within their workplace for example (Fulcher & Scott, 1999).
Because of this process, it would hardly seem surprising that the socialization process may have a profound effect on the type of adult an individual becomes. This essay proposes that the primary socialization a child is exposed to, namely the ‘parenting style’ adopted by their parents, will affect aspects of the behaviour in the adult ‘to be’. In particular, this essay will focus on the potential effects of emotional neglect in childhood on the emerging adult. The essay also offers two theoretical perspectives that differ in their stance regarding the usefulness of such a ‘cause & effect’ relationship when assisting the individual to ‘change’.

The essay begins by offering an overview of the different parenting styles, and their implications, as proposed by Diana Baumrind in 1967.

When discussing parenting with others, it is not difficult to identify several different approaches used parenting styles. Measuring or defining these differences and quantifying their potential impact on individual’s subsequent behaviors was a task set-upon by Diana Baumrind in 1967 (Reber, 1999; Kaplan, 1993). Based on Baumrind’s initial research which included one hundred pre-school Californian children, three different parenting styles were proposed; authoritarian, permissive and authoritative each reflecting a level of love and concern for the child (Kaplan, 1993). A further two parenting styles were soon identified by successive researchers. These are entitled ‘neglectful parenting’ and ‘indulgent parenting’. Both styles, as may be indicated by their labels, are underpinned by abuse and harm (Berger, 2003).

Table 1: The effects of different parenting styles on the characteristics of the child

[Adapted from: Lerner, Ree &Williamson, , 15,1998; Berger, 2003 pp.310-311; Stormshank, Bierman, McMahon, & Lengua, 2000; Mental Help, 2003]

Baumrind’s research clearly shows the potential influence of parental involvement on childhood development in that the type of parenting style adopted has been found to envoke certain characteristics in the emerging adult (Lane, 2001). For example, table 1 suggests that individuals raised by permissive parents will lack self-control and feel uncomfortable with idea of reciprocity and sharing and those raised by neglectful parents on the one hand are likely to display behavioural difficulties & aggressive tendencies, or on the other hand develop a very low self-esteem and withdraw socially.
This essay focuses specifically on the effects that ‘neglectful’ parenting can have on the individual once they reach adulthood. To address each of the parenting styles in table 1 would be out with the scope of this essay.
The essay continues by investigating how many children are exposed to a neglectful upbringing in the UK while also considering how this early experience of emotional abuse or neglect might influence the adult by presenting data from current research studies followed by criticisms pertaining to the research techniques used. This essay proceeds to introduce two opposing theorists viewpoints regarding the usefulness of a model of causation in helping an individual to change, Sigmund Freud and Aaron Beck.
First of all, the question of how many children experience such an upbringing must be posed.


Table 2: Number of children referred for child protection because they are at risk of abuse (Neglectful Parenting)

[From: The Scottish Executive: 2002]

In 2002, the number of children exposed to emotional abuse was 286, representing 12.4% of the total number of children on the child protection register in Scotland. It can realistically be assumed that this number doubles, or even triples when considering the UK as a whole.
So how might an early experience of emotional abuse or neglect as listed on the previous table influence the adult?
Muser, Goodman, Trumbetta, Rosenberg, Osher, Vidaver, Auciello & Foy, (1998) found that between thirty four to fifty three percent of patients with severe mental illnesses report childhood abuse (Muser et al., 1998:493). Furthermore, individuals with mental illnesses who have histories of trauma (including emotional abuse) are more likely to adopt maladaptive coping mechanisms including substance abuse (Muser et al., 1998 and Kaplow, 2002). Startling findings have also been reported by Coll, Law, Tobias, Hawton & Tomais (2001) who studied adult females (n=36) admitted to hospital following deliberate self-poisoning. Coll et al., (2001) found that the women who had taken overdoses and admitted to hospital were significantly more likely to have been psychological abused as children when compared to the control group. The subjects were compared to matched controls in this quasi-experimental design in terms of their gender, marital status, social class, ethnicity, age and geographical locality to reduce the likelihood of any of these aspects acting as confounding variables (Coll et al., 2001). Similar findings relating the quality of parenting to self-harming behaviour have also been reported by Gratz, Dukes-Conrad & Roemer in 2003 and the year before, in 2001, by Sansone, Gaither, & Barclay. Based on these findings it is clear that the type of parenting style adopted may influence the adoption of certain behavioural characteristics once reaching adulthood. For example, the adult may become self-abusive or substance dependant (Bradley, 2002).
This research puts into perspective the implications of the findings by the Scottish Executive. The figures reported are extremely alarming and it is clear to see that when neglectful parents raise an individual, the implications are not only immediately devastating, but can also affect the individual throughout adulthood. However, these studies are open to criticism because there are great weaknesses in each of these studies in that they are dependent upon correlation analyses. Correlations can only show that when one variable increase, so does another or when one variable increases (e.g. emotional abuse) another variable decreases (e.g. the individuals self-esteem) thus showing a negative correlation between two variables. The results reported do not necessarily reflect a cause and effect relationship, correlational analyses never can. The reason for a change in any variable may be caused by an element unaccounted for by the researcher. For example, regarding alcohol abuse, some researchers may argue that the reason an individual abuses a substance is because they are biologically predisposed to do so and not because they have been neglected during childhood (Comer, 1993). The only way to establish a cause and effect relationship between neglect and alcohol abuse is to conduct an experiment. However, such an experiment would be unethical and prohibited in today’s society.
The second best alternative is to conduct a longitudinal study amoung an existing cohort of neglected children and to follow their development into adulthood. Such a study is underway at the moment. O’Conner, Rutter, Beckett, Keaveny, & Kropper, (2000) and Rutter et al., (1998) are currently carrying out a longitudinal research project investigating the development of Romanian children who were adopted by caring families in the UK. The children’s developmental progress is being monitored following suffering and neglect experienced during anything up to the first two years of their lives in an orphanage in Rome (O’Connor et al., 2000 and Rutter et al., 1998). All the children included were severely developmentally delayed on entry into the UK. So far, the researchers have found that if the Romanian children were adopted before they were six moths old, by the age of four years, they had reached the same cognitive and physical levels of development as their UK counter parts. And if the Romanian children were adopted between the ages of twenty-four and forty-two months, then their chances of ‘catching up’ were significantly reduced resulting in a prolonged general development impairment (O’Connor et al., 2000 and Rutter et al., 1998). The implications of this early neglect on adulthood have not been investigated as yet because the children are still growing. The results, however, will provide interesting and robust results regarding the implications of this early neglect on behaviours adopted during adulthood.
Such a model of causation i.e. emotional neglect = an individual who will abuse substances and self-harm is only useful amoung those practitioners who believe such a model aids recovery.
The essay will now introduce the researcher who believe this model to be useful when helping and individual to change (Sigmund Freud), followed by a researcher who does not (Aaron Beck).
The controversial theory offered by Freud (1900, 1923, 1933) proposes a causation model between early experiences and adult characteristics. Freud claims that children progress through psychosexual stages of development. The first stage is called the oral stage (birth to eighteen months) where all pleasure is obtained orally. This is used to explain why many children like to place things in their mouths when they are young. The second stage of development occurs between the ages of eighteen months and four to six years of age. This stage is called the anal stage of development and at this point the ‘libido’ has relocated itself so that all pleasure is obtained anally. This stage coincides with when children are usually being potty trained. Freud argues these first two stages to be pivotal for adult psychological health [1]and any neglect during these periods as detrimental to the emerging adult (Berger, 2003). Psychoanalysis is grounded in uncovering unconscious conflicts that emerge as a result of unsuccessful progression through each of these psychosexual stages of development. Because of this focus on early experiences during therapeutic intervention it can be argued that psychodynamic therapists clearly purport this model of causation to be useful when helping an individual to change (Gross & McIlveen, 1996).
Inline with the focus of the essay psychoanalysts propose that the individual exposed to emotional neglect during childhood will feel a great deal of anger towards their parents. The ID, which Freud describes as the “cauldron of seething excitement” (Freud, 1993:103-104: as cited in Comer, 1993) is motivated to openly express feelings of anger. However this is prohibited by the individual’s conscience, or ‘superego’. The superego is “always reminding us that certain behaviours, feelings or thoughts are good or bad, right or wrong” (Comer, 1993:38). Therefore the psychoanalyst would argue that the super ego (acting like a conscience) would not allow such feelings to be expressed openly. These conflicting interests cause internal conflict. This conflict is proposed to be out with the awareness of the individual although this conflict can have a profound effect on the individuals functioning (Comer, 1993)
Therefore, using this cause and effect model, the first step in psychoanalysis would be to attempt to bring the conflicts into consciousness and help the individual gain insight or conscious awareness of this repressed conflict stemming from their anger at being emotionally abused during childhood. The rationale underpinning this approach is that “once a person understands the reason for a behaviour…[he or she] can deal more effectively with it and resolve the conflict” thus facilitating a change for the better (Gross & McIlveen 1996:95). Psychoanalysts would propose this model of causation to be essential in helping a person and criticize therapies such as the cognitive behavioural approach not tackling the root of the problem which in this example would be to resolve their unconscious anger with their parents/primary caregivers.
Aaron Beck (1960) however would question the focus placed on early childhood events. Aaron Beck and other cognitive cehavioural therapists would propose that an adult’s maladaptive behaviour or emotional responses to the world are predominantly caused thinking errors or misperceptions rather than events from the past. Cognitive behavioural therapists would not be concerned with the clients history or what has caused the current situation, but on how to change their thinking styles into ones that are more rational and positive. If an individual had been subjected to emotional neglect during childhood, it may be the case that on reaching adulthood the individuals suffers from low self-esteem, as mentioned earlier, and depression. Cognitive behavioural therapists would propose that focusing on these early negative experiences would only feed into the depression and make an individual feel worse. Alternately the cognitive behavioural therapist would challenge the individual’s negative thoughts by asking for evidence to support their thinking.

For example:
Situation: no one sits beside the individual during lunch break.
Interpretation: No one likes me, I am a bad person.

The therapist would ask the individual for evidence to support their belief that no-one likes them and that they are a bad person by asking questions such as; “has anybody told you that they don’t like you?” & “were people sitting beside you yesterday?”. The therapists may also ask how their best friend would explain the situation by asking; “what do you think your best friend would say if you told them what you were thinking?”. Furthermore, the therapist is also likely to ask for alternative interpretations of the event such as “does everybody take their brakes at the same time?” and “are there other people sitting alone and do you think that they are bad people?” (Comer, 1993). The individual receiving cognitive behavioural therapy is given these exercises as homework to encourage them to challenge their own negative thoughts and decrease the tendency to think dichotomously (Comer, 1993). Therefore from a cognitive behavioural perspective, the model of causation proposing that experiences in early childhood influence subsequent behaviour is not deemed as a useful and instead focus on the ‘here & now’. Both of these models; Freud focusing on early childhood experiences and Beck on the ‘here & now’, attempt to help a person change for the better. In order to determine the usefulness of this model of causation i.e. that emotional neglect in childhood leads to substance abuse or self-harm, the essay will now examine the efficacy of each therapy in treating individuals with major depression, a disorder often found amoung cohorts of self-harmers and individuals who abuse alcohol (Christenson & Crow, 1996; as cited in Hautmann, 2002 and Comer, 1993:448). Theoretically, if this model of causation is useful in helping individuals change, then the psychodynamic therapy will be more effective as an intervention in comparison to individuals treated using cognitive behavioural therapy and vice versa.
Comer (1993) reports that researchers have found “long-term psychodynamic therapies to be helpful only occasionally in cases of unipolar depression” (Comer, 1993:315). These cases include depression that is clearly instigated by a history of childhood trauma, which emotional neglect may well be categorized as by some individuals. Nevertheless, treatment does tend to be rather lengthy and is often abandoned by the depressed individual who begins this course of treatment (Comer, 1993). Contrastingly, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy usually requires 12 –20 1-hour sessions. The therapy progresses through four phases. The first phase focusing on increasing the individuals activities and elevating their mood, the second and third on identifying and challenging their thinking errors, and the final stage tackles the individuals primary attitudes and central beliefs which led to the depression in the first place Gross & McILveen, 1996). In recent years “hundreds of studies have concluded that mildly to severely depressed people who have received cognitive behavioural therapy improve significantly more than those who receive placebo treatments or no treatment at all” (Comer, 1993:322). Moreover between fifty and sixty percent of individuals treated with cognitive behavioral therapy show a complete reduction in depressive symptoms when treated on a one to one basis with a substantially lower rate of relapse than when treated with medication (Capuzzi-Simon, 2002). From this short overview it certainly appears that focusing on the here and now is more effective in aiding an individual to change their behaviour than focusing on their childhood. Perhaps the greatest difference between these two methods is that CBT ‘empowers patients, even outside the sessions’ whereas psychoanalysis depicts the individual’s behaviour as something the individual is relatively powerless to control as the medium for change lies in the unconscious (Capuzzi-Simon, 2002).
In conclusion to this essay, it appears that an experience such as emotional abuse early in life can influence aspects of adult behaviour. However, I think a rigid cause and effect relationship is not as useful in helping a person to change for the better as an approach which empowers and encourages the individual to accept that they have the power to change their behaviour is they wish. This is reflected in the outcomes of the therapeutic approaches overviewed where cognitive behavioural therapy, the more empowering of the two, promises a more positive prognosis amoung individuals who are likely to have experienced emotional neglect in childhood.

1. Readers are referred to Berger (2003) for further details regarding Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.[Return]

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