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Transactional Analysis and Reflection

According to Dewey, thinking is an actual form of doing (Tiles, 1992). Research and practise validate constructive reflection as one of the most important forms of thought.

Through reflection, one realises the importance of understanding the variables that influence your effectiveness in an educational setting and how your own personality fits into these factors.

Whilst the theoretical basis for these variables ranges from psychodynamic and behaviourist to humanist, practical awareness of one's ecological situation adds the parameters for interpretation. However, putting these understandings into practise needs further parameters. For example, teaching styles vary widely according to the individual and whilst some teachers appear assertive, others may not do so, yet both may be.

Through reflection, I can understand my sphere or operations, namely the environment within which I work and the people in it. By interpreting these reflections through specific frameworks (such as that provided by Transactional Analysis), I aim to develop behavioural strategies to improve outcomes between students, teachers and colleagues. Assertiveness, whilst not being the single, prescriptive approach, is an end result and an extremely useful communication tool when understood and used properly.

Its transience is recognised and explored by Alberti and Emmons (1979, 1986) and they position it as in between passivity and aggression. For assertiveness not to be perceived as aggress, as Holmes (2005) asserts, it needs a basis of self-confidence and self-respect.  From this perspective, it forms part of the pro-social skills that are so important in a society that values communication and effective expression.  Deficits in social skills have been linked to

In relating to others, the social contexts of assertiveness – either negative or positive – need to be understood. For example, assertiveness can be associated with aggression. Overly assertive behaviour, especially when the balance of power is in favour of that person eg principal to teacher, teacher to student, can cause resentment, anger and insecurity (Cole and Walker, 1989). Stress studies (eg McManus, 1989; Cole & Walker, 1989; Holmes, 2005) show that teachers are less likely to burn out if they feel supported by the schools they work in.

To achieve this, teachers need to have the skills to confront what they perceive as organisational or systemic failures. Hall et al (1984) compartmentalises this form of assertiveness, reducing it to a format where the issue is stated to the other party and not elaborated upon. It is almost like an Internet search – you state your requirements (and your reasons) and leave it up to the search engine to come back with the solution. Much the same approach can be used with students as it leaves the respondent space to make the suggestions rather than space only to react.

Each section is broken into a general overview followed by how one can use interpersonal skills within that given parameter.

1. Demonstrate improved skills in personal effectiveness via understanding and practice of assertiveness.

Alberti and Emmons list physical means of conveying assertiveness. In the following table, these are placed in the context of my actions as a teacher and understandings of assertiveness.

Alberti and Emmons list	My past inclination	Methods of improving
EYE CONTACT	not always maintained	focus on the content of what is being said by self and other person use eye contact to make connection use eye contact to correct behaviour use eye contact to re-focus individuals
BODY POSTURE	can appear inattentive and distracted due to all the other activities going on sometimes forget to stand and listen	turn to face speaker if time is short or other circumstances require attention, explain this and that you will return to them later
DISTANCE/PHYSICAL CONTACT	sometimes forget that distance is as disabling as being too close is overpowering	put self at a specific distance according to the situation so hearing is possible
GESTURES	use's one method of gaining attention rather than varying	vary gestures
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS	must be appropriate to the emotion and situation	if you are serious, then let it show on your face If you are happy with what is happening, then also let this show
VOICE TONE, INFLECTION, VOLUME	can resort to a single volume and forget to change inflection pace can get too fast	when the situation is quiet, talk quietly remember that you can change your volume half way through a sentence volume and inflection are useful tools for gaining attention
CONTENT	do occasionally feel the need to fill a silence ensure comprehension	make it real and relevant don't talk for the sake of talking repeat points
TIMING	model appropriate timing don't be afraid to let a situation go until the right time arrives	teachers advice – you may loose a battle or two, but its more important to win the war keep the bigger picture in mind, especially during confrontational situations
LISTENING	pay attention to the speaker	active listening is a useful tool give the speaker your attention let them have their turn to communicate
FLUENCY	no ums and ers	think about what you need to say but allow for spontaneity as well.

1. Use transactional analysis to gain insights into relationships with learners, colleagues and other stakeholders

Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory (Krause et al, 2003) encourages appreciation of all the factors that affect individuals. Berne's Transactional Analysis (in Stewart & Joines, 1986)  also works on the holistic view. It helps to consider where a person's behaviour and attitude stems from and put them in the context of what you need to do.

To make it work, the participants must learn to listen, appreciate and resolve progressively. For example, a discussion with a fellow teacher from 15 years experience, a strong Catholic and believer in direct teaching practises may vary considerably from a discussion with a constructivist of 2 years teaching. Likewise the home situation of a student (and with younger students, their parents) may contribute to your approach and the language you use.

This is not to say that bias or bigotry is a factor, it is not, but appreciation and understanding of alternate points of view, value systems, religions and social skills do. In this context transactional analysis enables constructive enquiry. In the class it can allow creative enquiry. It is reliant upon my wish to establish a safe and progressive learning environment where all those involved are considered equally.

2. Give effective support to individual learners from different backgrounds and with a range of different needs, both academic and pastoral, including those relating to their level of literacy, numeracy and language.

This is a huge area and only one small section can be covered here. Wright et al (2002) examine how teachers using metacognitive strategies (teaching students to think about their thinking) can encourage student autonomy. The value of modelling thinking, communicating with all learning styles (kinaesthetic, aural, oral) and using all types of learning (numeracy, literacy, etc) aims to encourage students to take responsibility for their learning. Teacher effectiveness requires adapting ones methods of communication to suit the 'audience'.  It requires multiliteracy "to maximise opportunities for individuals from highly diverse backgrounds, and to create prosperous, productive and cohesive societies" (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000). This includes integrated numeracy, literacy, and language learning experiences. It includes all formats at appropriate levels eg texts, ICT's, the language of the discipline eg mathematics, science.  Assessment is clearly important, as is familiarity with school support systems such as those that aid with reading recovery.

How one communicates within the following formats need to be considered:

Age and stage of the student – e.g. Piaget's pre-, concrete or formal operational stages (Krause et al, 2003).  Effective communication must take this into account or students become under or over challenged, confused or de-motivated.

Academic needs – it is equally important to cater for the gifted and talented students as well as those with physical or learning difficulties. This may include adapted worksheets, full use of available resources (over-head projector, boards, visual aids, props) as well as presenting the issue in a number of forms – e.g. explanation, explanation with interaction, class division, small group work leading to peer tutoring and/or fast finishers challenges.

ESL students – do not assume knowledge. Assess and integrate, support with early intervention strategies where necessary but concentrate on building up the language skills and checking understanding.  Peer support is useful, as is the training of students to act as 'experts'

Socio-economic differences – as with ESL students, one must not assume the vocabulary and grammatical structure is there. Students may come from households where communication uses formats very different to those experienced at school. Establish your expectations and provide the language. Each learning experience needs its vocabulary so that students are confident and set up for success.

Different faiths: again, teachers need to consider the values their students come to school with, as they do with colleagues and stakeholders. Pejorative statements, bias and bigotry should have no place in the classroom.

3. Develop strategies to deal with stressful situations and time constraints.

Cole and Walker (1989) investigate time constraints as an element contributing to stress in educational settings. Their research clarifies a number of triggers that cause teacher stress and various approaches taken in dealing them. Sources of stress fall into two main categories; those caused by the individual school system (e.g. bad working conditions, poor arenas for and methods of communication) and those resulting from classroom pressure (e.g. lack of time, student behavioural issues). Added to this are the teacher's own motivations, sense of self, time management skills and confidence. For example, the high expectations placed on teachers as professionals (McManus, 1989) further compounds a desire to try to succeed with all students – something that is not always possible.

For myself, there are three stages that help overcome stressful situations. First, I aim to remain calm during the situation. If it is a confrontation with a colleague then I may advocate the use of the assertiveness strategies earlier discusses at the right time and the right place.  Self confidence and self belief help. If it is the behaviour of a student, then I would hope to defuse and re-direct through selecting the 'right' teaching strategies (empathy, active listening, selective ignoring, personal proximity, eye contact, a 'quiet word', active listening etc).

Should this not be possible, for example with a behavioural difficulty student, I may need to use the external support systems and request the student's removal from the class. The important thing is that I know I am doing the right thing at the time and have the confidence to stand by my judgement.

4. Explore the causes of challenging behaviour and appropriate strategies to deal effectively with it.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Krause et al, 2003) shows that people require physical and psychological support. This is applicable to students and teachers alike. If these needs are not met, for example if one feels uncomfortable, unsafe, hungry, tired, unchallenged, insecure or misunderstood, the results can be anything from lack of motivation and boredom to anxiety and anger.  Taxonomies such as those developed by Bloom (1956) and further developed by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) help avoid these pitfalls by asking what we want to teach, why and how to measure using cognitive, psychomotor, affective domains. We must recognise the gap between our agenda and the students and find means of effective scaffolding.

Establishing parameters is important. Students need to know the boundaries and what expectations are placed upon them. I would negotiate class expectations (rules) and allow students to make behaviour choices but place clear consequences, both positive and negative on these choices.

Before reaching the stage of action such as applied behaviour analysis (Krause et al¸2003) one would hope to establish precedents for inappropriate behaviour eg time of day (hunger, tiredness, fidgeting, lack of understanding etc) and change the factors. For example doing something practical at certain times may help some students whilst making learning as real and relevant aims to motivate and encourage. In using transactional analysis I would aim to make a cooperative learning environment that would also help avoid bad precedents.

Being consistent is vital as is being fair.

5. Consider the impact of their own values, beliefs and life experiences on their approach to learners and learning.

Schools stand accused of being a means of social reproduction (Bourdieu, 1983, cited in Webb, Schirato & Donaher). This means they reproduce not only the dominant discourse (Foucault, 1973) but also its inequalities. For example Mercier and Harold (2003) examine how the religiously and culturally generated westernised ideal of the heterosexual family unit finds expression in school documentation. The institutions are defined by the people that work in them as well as the curricula and regulations surrounding them.

Therefore it is clearly important to acknowledge that all teachers and students arrive at these institutions with pre-established ideas, attitudes and values.  How they 'fit in' with the educational systems depends on a combination of these two fields – the individual and the establishment.

Taking myself as an example, I place a high value on life-long learning and I want to enthuse my students with a love of learning too. However, the value I place on Bourdieu's concept of cultural capital (Schirato & Yell, 2000) can differ hugely from some of the students systems of values. I am happy in an academic environment, I understand the language and the formats.

However, many students do not. They can be intimidated by it, made angry by lack of comprehension, bored or unmotivated by an environment that is unfamiliar or under-stimulating to them and so on. Staff can also have very different backgrounds and approaches, none of which are more valid that the other. As investigated above, understanding theory and practise regarding intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can define my approach to students and staff alike.

6. Consider and identify a selection of professional contexts for the deployment of interpersonal skills and strategies including interviews and one to one review sessions. Link to outcomes 2,3 and 6.

Haberman's (2005) 'star' teachers move beyond entrenched means of communication and recognise the individual in the equation. By that I mean that they work within systems but adapt them. To put this in more specific contexts,

SITUATIONS	OPTIONS, staff to staff, teacher to student and student to teacher
General issues Conflict resolution General classroom management Bullying Personality clashes	Non-verbal and verbal responses Non-verbal and verbal responses plus strategies discussed above eg motivational strategies Whole class or individual anti-bullying strategies drawing on empathetic feeling and understanding Again, conflict resolution or strategy teaching using calm, positive and assertive techniques and a transactional approach.
Staff issues Planning meetings Curriculum meetings	As above, calm, organised, cohesive and clear arguments that allow space for the other(s) to question and contribute.
student issues behaviour issues classroom conflict	in class resolution using methods explored –assertiveness, transactual analysis, active listening, active ignoring, time out, re-directing, choices and consequences, a 'quiet word', removal from class post-issue – interview, involvement of parents, counselling, etc
Stakeholders parent teacher meetings board meetings	interviews, positive approach and problem solving constructive and simply stated assertive contributions

Back to: Education Essays

As said before, this is a huge area and so much more can be written about it. However, this assignment covers the basic points as relates to an individual and their perceptions. It is a learning process. What is true now, may change next year.

Fall six times, stand up seven. Japanese proverb.

References

Alberti, R. E., & Emmons, M. L. (1970). Your Perfect Right: A guide to assertive living. San Luis Obispo, CA: Impact

Alberti, R. E., & Emmons, M. L (1975, 1986). Stand Up, Speak Out, Talk Back. NY, USA: Pocket Books

Armitage, A. (2003) Teaching and training in post-compulsory education. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press

Cole, M. & Walker, S. (1989) Understanding Stress in Teaching. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press

Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (eds), (2000) Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures. London: Routledge.

Forgas, J.P. (1985) Interpersonal Behaviour: the psychology of social interaction. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press Inc

Foucault, M. (Oct-Nov. 1983) Discourse and Truth: The Problematization of Parrhesia. (Six lectures given at Berkeley,) http://foucault.info/documents/parrhesia/

Haberman, M. (2005) 'The pedagogy of poverty verses good teaching', Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 73, No4. pp.290-294

Hall, E., Woodhouse, D.A. & Wooster, A.D. (1984) 'An evaluation of in-service courses in human relations', British Journal of In-Service Education vol.11 (1). Pp. 55-60

Hogan, K. & Pressley, M. (Eds) (1997) Scaffolding Student Learning: instructional approaches and issues. Cambridge, Mass: Brookline Books

Hogan, K. & Stubbs, R.(2003) Can't Get Through: 8 Barriers to Communication. Gretna, LA: Pelican

Holmes, K. (2005) Teacher Well-being: Looking after yourself and your career in the classroom. Abingdon, Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer

Jones, V.F, & Jones, L.S. (1998) Comprehensive Classroom Management: creating communities of support and problem solving. (5^th Ed) Needham Heights, Mass: Allyn & Bacon.

Killen, R. (2003) Effective Teaching Strategies: lessons from research and practise. Tuggerah, NSW: Social Science Press.

Krause, K., Bochner, S. & Duchesne, S. (2003) Educational Psychology for

Learning and Teaching. Southbank, VIC: Thomson Learning.

Tickle, L. (2000) Teacher Induction: the way ahead. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Tiles, M (1992) John Dewey: Critical Assessments, London, UK: Routledge,

McManus, M. (1989) Troublesome Behaviour in the Classroom: Meeting individual needs. London, UK: Routledge

Marsh, C. (2004) Becoming a Teacher. (3rd Edition). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia.

Mercier, L. & Harold, R. (2003) At the interface: lesbian-parent families and their children's schools.  Children & Schools 25,1;ERIC, p35-47

Stewart, I. & Joines, V. (1987).  TA Today: A new Introduction to Transactional Analysis. Nottingham, UK: Lifespace

Webb, J., Schirato, T. & Danaher, G. (2002).  Understanding Bourdieu. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin

Whitton, D., Sinclair, C., Barker, K., Nanlogy, P. & Nowsorthy, M. (2004) learning for Teaching Teaching for Learning. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson Social Science Press

Wright, R., Martland, J., Stafford, A.K., & Stanger, G. (2002)  Teaching Number: advancing children's strategies and knowledge in early numbers. London, UK: Paul Chapman Publishing

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