Parents and the Educational Needs of Children

"Parents should be seen as vital partners in a child's education" (DfES (1997). Discuss ways in which primary schools encourage a partnership with parents and how this can help a child develop positive attitudes to learning.

In recent years, an array of legislation and guidance has emerged under the present new Labour government to bring together a co-ordinated framework of services to address the care and educational needs of children. The government has expressed its intention to place schools at the heart of a new multidisciplinary approach to children's services with improved communication and consultation between schools, together with other service providers, and parents, as one of its principle aims (DfES, 1997; DfES, 2003).

Many commentators have noted the importance of parents as the prime educators of their children (Nind et al, 2003; Williams, 2004; Berk, 2004) and the issue of establishing successful partnerships between schools and parents has been addressed through a number of different perspectives. It seems that the strategies employed to overcome barriers and build constructive relationships must be situated within a school ethos of genuine inclusion which values parents' views and contribution which, in turn, can only enhance children's attitudes to learning.

Brooker (2002) and Mayall (2002) have noted the ways in which children, and parents, are effectively socialised into the pedagogical ethos of their child's school and suggest that parents' conformity to this ethos has commonly underpinned many models of parental involvement. As Brooker (2002) argues, an 'open door' policy which ostensibly invites parents in to see classroom practice and consult with staff does not necessarily constitute a climate conducive to genuine collaboration in the educative process.

The research presented by Brooker (2002), whilst focusing primarily upon early years learning cultures, has provided some useful insights into the ways schools conceptualise their relationships with families and, conversely, how parents experience schools. She found that, from early on children's schooling, school staff attitudes towards parents were highly influenced by their own perceptions of the extent to which parents expressed their interest in, and became involved with their children's education.

Brooker (2002) identifies a wide gulf between the beliefs and values of formal educators and what she calls the "mountain of invisible investment made by parents" (p. 119). She cites the work of Vincent (1996), for example, highlighting the negative perceptions of parents by teachers and suggests that, essentially, teachers tend only to welcome the involvement of those parents who do not contest school policies and practices or undermine their authority.

In similar vein, Beveridge (2004) asserts that teachers' attitudes can often be negative and stereotypical regarding parental motivation, competence and skills in the educative domain and furthermore, parents are often aware of this and are adversely affected. She suggests that parents experiences of schools and school staff will inevitably be enhanced when they "feel respected in their own right as parents, and equally importantly, when they perceive that their child is a positively valued member of the school" (Beveridge, 2004, p. 63).

School staff attitudes, and indeed school ethos, seem central to the quality of relationships that can be developed with parents (Beveridge, 2004). Research conducted by Bastiani (1992) and Coleman (1998) found that whilst parents commonly expressed their need for information about the progress, attainments and possible difficulties regarding their children's schooling, they also wanted reassurance that school staff understood their child's personal and social needs, as well as their academic needs.

Beveridge extends this view and draws from her own research into parents' views, suggesting that teachers need to acquire the skills to "elicit and respond to parents' own in-depth knowledge, perspectives and insights" (2004, p.64) about their children's needs.  This implies that teachers should be equipped with a high level of sensitivity and interpersonal skill vis-a-vis the parental perspective so that they may provide honest, clear and accurate information about the learning and behaviour of individual children at school.

Hornby et al (1995) and Hornby (2000) reiterate this point and argue for an extension of teachers' skills to incorporate the principles, drawn from the counselling arena, of active, non-judgemental listening and joint problem-solving techniques. Hornby (2000), for example, calls for "skilled assertiveness that allows teachers to be both direct and diplomatic in their interactions with parents, and to respond constructively to disagreements and criticisms when these occur" (Beveridge, 2004, p. 65).

Hornby (2000) argues for a reciprocal, inclusive framework of home-school links within which every family has a place, not just those few whose own culture and practices are in line with those of the school. Parents' knowledge of their children, together with the contribution they can make to teaching, is seen as strengths universal to all families. It should also be recognised, however, that parents have different levels of need in terms of information and support (Hornby, 2000; Nind et al, 2003).

Beveridge (2004) agrees that parents' accumulated, in-depth knowledge about their children can greatly enhance teachers' understandings. In her discussion of parental involvement in the monitoring and assessment of children's academic progress, Beveridge (2004) stresses that teachers need to include areas of comparative strength and ways in which these can be built upon, rather than a sole focus on difficulties and deficits. Whilst Beveridge is primarily discussing those children deemed as having 'special educational needs' here, this observation equally well applies to the assessment of all children's progress.

Although it seems clear that discrepancies inevitably will exist between the views of parents and teachers, a striving for mutual understanding and a greater accentuation on the 'positives' can do much to engender positive attitudes for both parents and children (Beveridge, 2004).

In the arena of parent/teacher consultations, Bastiani (1992) identified particular pre-requisites for success in ensuring that both parties are heard. Firstly, she suggests that parents must have sufficient information about the nature, purpose and length of the convened meeting and an opportunity to clarify and add items to the agenda.  Secondly, a constructive focus needs to be established and decisions on subsequent actions to be taken understood and agreed by all participants. It must be recognised that some parents will require more support in these matters than others (Bastiani, 1992). Finally, as highlighted by DfES (1997), schools need to consider carefully the range of opportunities they can provide for parents to become involved and also the forms of assistance that might be needed to enable parents to participate fully.

There is much evidence for the effectiveness of well-planned schemes of parental involvement in the teaching of reading (Tizard et al, 1981; Hannon, 1995; Mills, 1996; Beveridge, 2004).  Mills (1996) highlights the crucial role that parents can play in developing literacy skills with their children, pointing out that the 'one-to-one' relationship is clearly more valuable to the child than the '30 to one' ratio typical in the average classroom.

Mills suggests that simply sending books home is insufficient but also notes that "parents may sometimes need support and advice about effective models of hearing their children read" (1996, p.86). Gregory (2000) echoes this view and expresses concerns that traditional schemes may not be suitable for all families. She recommends that schools consider different approaches which might better fit the needs of families.

For example, a sole focus on story books might be extended, or replaced, by making use of other kinds of literacy experiences at home and also to include other members of the family and community. The aim here is not simply to follow the school's approach to literacy, and indeed other curriculum goals and activities, but to build bridges between home and school (Gregory, 2000).

Mills (1996) has recorded that whilst many schools have developed strong home/school links with parents, especially through reading schemes, there has been less success in minority language communities. She suggests that "schools have found that cultural and linguistic differences have created barriers to collaboration" (Mills, 1996, p. 84) and this has impacted negatively upon children's academic progress and motivation at school. Similarly, Berk (2004) observes that many ethnic minority parents are uncomfortable about going to school and often "lack the skills, knowledge and confidence to support their children's progress in majority culture language work" (p.85).

Mills (1996) describes the experiences of Asian parents in Birmingham, most particularly those from Pakistani, Northern India and Bangladeshi cultures. Evidence from initiatives in two Birmingham primary schools to foster home-school links yielded a number of recommendations for schools in minority language communities. These include the development of books and information in a variety of local languages as well as the use of multicultural materials and activities within the school for all pupils to generate an atmosphere of greater understanding and inclusion for all children, regardless of cultural background.

Most importantly, as Mills (1996) asserts, parents need to feel positively welcomed by the school through the creation of a genuinely open environment. Berk underlines this view and suggests that teachers must make extra efforts to integrate "ethnic minority values and practices into classroom life and regularly contact parents who don't come to conferences and school events" (2004, p.206).

Many commentators have situated the notion of partnership between schools, parents and the community within the wider context of school ethos and inclusive practice. Dyson (1997), for example, has observed that many of the educational difficulties experienced by children, such as disaffection, disruption and underachievement are associated with social disadvantage.

Croll (2002) underlines this and highlights the clear links, also, between parental socio-economic status and social, emotional and behavioural problems, as well as the learning difficulties which come under the banner of 'special educational needs'. Parents' experience of high levels of stress, perhaps in poorer, 'run-down' neighbourhoods, can adversely affect not only their interactions with their children but also their dealings with education and related services (Beveridge, 2004).

Teachers may hold stereotypical, negative views of such families which impede the quality of home-school relationships. Bastiani (1997) points out the increasing recognition that there is a diversity of successful parenting styles and that teachers can acknowledge this and adopt a more positive approach which builds on parents' own strategies for raising their children. Ball (1998) and White (1997) have reported on successful Portage schemes for parents of children with learning difficulties involving short-term learning targets agreed with parents.

Beveridge (2004), however, highlights the potential stigmatising effects of these schemes when they are limited to families with children deemed as having 'special educational needs' and argues that these specific strategies should be available for all families.

The current push for schools to be placed at the centre of the community (DfES, 2003) has been championed by Berk (2004) as a prime opportunity to nurture the collaborative work of teachers, parents and children. She cites Connors and Epstein (1996) who argued that "when parents are involved in school activities, talk regularly with teachers, monitor their child's progress and help with homework, children show better academic achievement" (Berk, 2004, p.206).

It seems that, as Berk (2004) suggests, the strategies adopted by schools to establish strong home/school links must be situated within the wider educational ethos and practice of the school in order to be truly effective. Factors such as co-operative dialogues, joint problem-solving, staff training and support are flagged up as key objectives for the whole school in order to provide "experiences for children that are as encouraging, enriching and educative as possible" (Berk, 2004, p.208).

Within the true spirit of partnership, however, the ethos of the 'learning community' demands that all those involved in this inclusive enterprise of educative enrichment need to play an active role. Thus, as Berk (2004) suggests, parents also have a responsibility to become knowledgeable about what constitutes high quality education and they can then press for better classroom experiences for their children.

Teachers and parents, together with children, need to build bridges and it seems crucial that each plays an active role if their strategies are to be truly reciprocal and successful. Further to this, Beveridge (2004) reminds us that the child's perspective is an integral part of this reciprocity.

Children are active social agents and not merely passive recipients of learning processes and they have a "personal perspective on their own experiences, aspirations and needs which cannot be inferred from having adults speak on their behalf" (Beveridge, 2004, p.79).

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Conclusion

In summary, then, primary schools can do much to engender strong home/school links, particularly through the cultivation of more positive and non-judgemental attitudes towards families, in recognition of the contribution that all families can make towards their children's education whatever their social and cultural background. As commentators such as Beveridge (2004) and Berk (2004) have highlighted, however, true partnership implies that all those involved, adults and children alike, have a role to play in the development of successful collaborative strategies.

In terms of the particular role played by primary schools, it would seem that strategies rooted in a 'whole school' philosophy of genuine inclusion which values and respects the views of parents and children are those which are most likely to make a positive difference in terms of children's attitudes to learning.

References

Ball, M (1998) School Inclusion: the School, the Family and the Community, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York

Bastiani, J (1992) Working with Parents: a whole school approach, NFER-Nelson, Windsor

Bastiani, J (Ed (1997) Home-School Work in Multicultural Settings, David Fulton, London

Berk, L (2004) Awakening Children's Minds: How Parents and Teachers can make a difference, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Beveridge, S (2004) Children, Families and Schools: Developing Partnerships for Inclusive Education, RoutledgeFalmer, London

Brooker, L (2002) Starting School – Young Children Learning Cultures, Open University Press, Buckingham

Coleman, P (1998) Parent, Student and Teacher Collaboration: the power of three, Paul Chapman, London

Croll, P (2002) 'Social deprivation, school-level achievement and special educational needs', in Educational Research, Vol. 44, pp. 43-53

DfES (1997) www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/parentalinvolvement

DfES (2003) Every Child Matters, Green Paper, HMSO, London

Dyson, A (1997) 'Social and educational disadvantage: reconnecting special needs education', in British Journal of Special Education, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 152-157

Gregory, E (2000) 'Recognising differences: reinterpreting family involvement in early literacy', in Cox, T (Ed) Combating Educational Disadvantage: meeting the needs of vulnerable children, Falmer Press, London, pp. 45-50

Hannon, P (1995) Literacy, Home and School: research and practice in teaching literacy with parents, Falmer Press, London

Hornby, G (2000) Improving Parental Involvement, Cassell, London

Hornby, G, Davis, G, Taylor, G (1995) The Special Needs Co-ordinator's Handbook, Routledge, London

Mayall, B (2002) Towards a Sociology for Childhood, Open University Press, Buckingham

Mills, J (Ed) (1996) Partnership in the Primary School, Routledge, London

Nind, M, Rix, J, Sheehy, K, Simmons, K (Eds) (2003) Inclusive Education: diverse perspectives, David Fulton, London

Tizard, B, Mortimore, J, Burchell, B (1981) Involving Parents in Nursery and Infant Schools: A Source Book for Teachers, Grant McIntyre, London

White, M (1997) 'A Review of the influence and effects of Portage', in Wolfendale, S (Ed) Working with Parents of SEN Children after the Code of Practice, David Fulton, London, pp. 32-36

Williams, F (2004) 'Commentary on Every Child Matters, DfES Green Paper', Critical Social Policy, Vol. 24(3)

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