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Educational Research May be Divided into a Multi-Stage Process.

Although the accurate number of stages is debatable, they usually include defining the topic, reviewing the literature, planning a research design, collecting data, analysing data and presenting the findings (Zikmund, 2000).

A collection of methodologies were used to carry out this research. Both primary and secondary data was collected for this purpose. The secondary data comprised of data from literature reviewed from books, journals, Internet and the annual reports of the institutions while the primary data took the form of information/results collected from questionnaire and interviews. Overall it may be said that both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to some extent in this project.

Research Approaches

There are several approaches or paradigms in educational research with labels implying opposite poles such as experimental/naturalistic, interpretive/positivist etc. In actual research, however, there may well be a mixture of two or more approaches that is generally used. This section briefly explores the purposes of some of the most commonly known research approaches.

Case Study Research

Case Study is a generic term for the investigation of an individual group, or phenomenon (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982). While the technique used in the investigation may be varied, and may include both qualitative and quantitative methods, the distinguishing feature of a case study is the belief that human systems develop a characteristic wholeness or integrity and are not simply a loose collection of traits. This very belief leads the researchers using case study approach to investigate a given scenario to a much greater depth bring out the interdependencies of the parts and the emerging patterns.

Action Research

Kemmis and McTaggert (1998) based on the works of Kurt Lewin, frequently described as the father of action research, and defined it as a form of collective self reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in a social scenario in order to improve the productivity, rationality and justice of their own social or education practices. The main purpose of the action research method is aimed at improving educational understandings, practices and settings and at involving those affected in the research process.

Naturalistic/Interpretive Research

The naturalistic researcher believes that the observer makes a difference to the observed and that reality is a human construct (Cohen et al, 2000). The purpose of this kind of research is generally to explore perspectives and shared meanings and to develop insights into situations. Data generally takes the form of qualitative methods based on conversation fieldwork, interviews etc.

Practitioner Research

This kind of research is conducted by a practitioner or professional in any field (doctor, nurse, teacher etc) into their own practice. Practitioner research is somewhat similar to naturalistic approach in the sense the practitioner is able to carry out research in his/her own natural environment.

Survey Research

Bell (1993) says that surveys can provide answers to questions like What, Where, When, And How. It tries to elaborate the problems of 'representativeness' from other approaches like case studies or most of the qualitative approaches. This approach can be termed as fact finding mission and may contribute little towards the development of a hypotheses or shaping theory. The results from the survey can definitely be used to test a hypotheses or theory. The data here is primarily quantitative but may also be qualitative in nature as it represents peoples view about an issue. Questionnaires are generally used for the purpose of data collection.

The researcher decided to use the survey approach for the purpose of this research. Surveys are commonly used in both descriptive and explanatory research, as many people can be asked many questions in a short time period. In survey research many people are asked questions and the answers are recorded and then analysed. Surveys (either by questionnaires, telephone or face-to-face interviews) are the most popular data collection instrument in educational research. Much existing literature (Neuman, 2003) has pointed out that surveys are attractive to researchers, both academically and commercially because of time limitations and the potential that they have to reduce the expense of survey work.

Research Tools

Questionnaires

Questionnaires provide the easiest known way of assembling a mass of information (Burroughs, 1971: pg 106). But a lot of care has to be taken in order to construct questionnaires to maximise response rate. Hence, the researcher may have prepared to collect a vast amount of information from a huge sample, due to long length or some kind of complexity in the questionnaire; it may yield a response rate so low that the data may not be adequate to make any kind of generalisation or even a reliable statement.

Advantages of using questionnaires

· Each person answering a particular questionnaire reads an identical set of questions which allows for consistency and makes processing answers easier (Denscombe, 1998).

· They are economical, the costs faced were nearly negligible, since once the form was loaded on the server, and all entries came in the form of e-mail.

· Easier to send and receive response and they supply standardised answers form all recipients

Disadvantages

· Since most questions are pre coded respondents true feelings and views do not come up

· Filling the questionnaire is on optional basis by the respondent, care has to be taken to ask precise questions and keep the length to a tolerable level.

· The validity and truthfulness of the information provided by the respondent in the questionnaire is always a concern while analysing the data

Keeping this in mind, for the purpose of this research, due care was taken to avoid hypothetical questions, double questions, presuming questions and any form of ambiguity or imprecision in questions. Also, an attempt has been made to keep the length of the questionnaire very precise, with to the point questions enabling the reader to be comfortable to fill the questionnaire without much loss of time, thereby increasing the questionnaires response rate as well as making data analysis simple.

Interviews

The decision to adopt another method as part of the research analysis arose due to the need for more detailed qualitative information. Through the use of questionnaires the researcher was only able to gather quantitative data and precise information, which in itself was quite useful for the project in order to gain a general view about the subject.

"As an information gathering tool, the interview lends itself to being used alongside other methods as a way of supplementing their data - adding detail and depth." (Denscombe, 1998; pi 12)                                              

As part of this research project, interviews will be used as a follow-up to a questionnaire. The attempt is to complement the questionnaire data with the interview data, pursuing the interesting lines of enquiry in greater detail. Simply stated, it can yield rich material or put flesh on the bones of the questionnaire (Bell, 1987).

Advantages

· An opportunity to get in-depth information, and hence valuable insight to the mind of the informant

· The informants have an opportunity to relate their feelings, ideas and views in much greater depth

· Interviews are probably one of the most flexible forms of data collection (Denscombe, 1998). Adjustments to the questions, duration and form of enquiry can be made during the interview itself

· The data is comparatively more easy to check for reliability and accuracy than for questionnaires due to personal interaction with the informant

· Since interviews are a 2 way mode of conversation on a more personalised level, there is a better chance for discussion and getting views clear

Disadvantages

· Fixing interviews and analysing the qualitative data can be very cumbersome and time consuming

· Consistency of data is hard to achieve, since data collected is unique and non-standard to the informant

· Being a highly subjective technique, there is always a danger of bias

· Lack of time and feasibility usually does not permit interviews to be held by with all the respondents

According to Cohen et al (2000), interviews may be categorized into three categories:

1. Structured interviews – Use questionnaires based on a predetermined and identical set of questions.

2. Semi structured interviews – The researcher has a list of themes and topics to cover, although these may vary from interview to interview depending upon the organizational context. The order of question s may also be varied depending upon the flow of conversation. Some new questions may also arise due to discussions.

3. Unstructured interviews – These interviews are informal. There is no predetermined list of questions. The interviewee is free to talk about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the research topic. This type of interview is also known as informant interview because it's the interviewee's perception which leads to the conduct of the interview. It is also known as in depth interview because it's used to explore in depth a general area in which the researcher is interested.

In this research, structured interviews were used to keep the interpersonal variables to a minimum and provide better consistency between answers.

Triangulation

The overall research approach which includes the use of qualitative and quantitative method is often called the triangulation method. Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behaviour (Cohen et al, 2000). In general, to gain the needed confirmation, to increase credence in the interpretation and to validate the data observed, four types of triangulation protocols are present.

For data source triangulation, we look to see if the phenomena or case remains the same at other times, in other spaces or as persons interact differently.

For investigator triangulation, we have other researchers take a look at the same scene or phenomena.

By choosing co-observers or reviewers we approach theory triangulation. Since no two investigators interpret things entirely the same, whenever multiple investigators compare their data, there is theory triangulation.

Methodological triangulation: To increase confidence in the interpretation, for example, we may follow direct observation with review of old records. In our research we will use follow up interviews to support the questionnaire data.

With multiple approaches within a single study, we are likely to nullify some extraneous influences. The main emphasis in triangulation is on combining methods, e.g., survey questionnaires with in-depth interviews. The idea behind taking two kinds of data collection method is that if diverse kinds of data support the same conclusion and confidence in the conclusions is increased.

For the purpose of this research methodological triangulation is used in the form of questionnaire and interviews to increase the confidence in the conclusions.

Validity and Reliability

The researcher has kept in mind the different criteria for assessing the quality of the research. They can be categorized as reliability, replication and validity. (Boaz & Ashby, 2004) Reliability is concerned with the question of whether the results of a study are repeatable. To avoid inconsistency in results, the measures chosen should be consistent. The idea of reliability is close to another criteria of research – replication. To assess the reliability of a measure, the procedures that make that measure must be replicable by someone else. And lastly the most important criteria of measuring research, is the validity of the collected data. (Boaz & Ashby, 2004) For this research the validity and reliability of the data collected through questionnaire and interviews were considered as follows.

Questionnaires

The advantage of questionnaire over interview is that it tends to be more reliable; because it is anonymous, it encourages greater honesty. It is more economical than interview in terms of time and money. One central issue in considering the reliability and validity of questionnaire surveys is that of sampling. An unrepresentative sample (too small or too large), can easily distort the data (Morrison, 1993). The problem of non- response in a questionnaire can be checked on and controlled for, particularly when the questionnaire is sent out on a continuous basis. It involves follow-up contact with non- respondents. Hudson and Miller (1997) suggest several strategies to get higher response rate to a postal questionnaire. They involve including stamped addressed envelopes, multiple rounds of follow-up to request returns, stressing the importance and benefits of the questionnaire etc.

Interviews

The most practical way of achieving greater validity is to minimise the amount of bias as much a possible. The sources of bias in an Interview may be the characteristic of the Interviewer, the characteristic of the interviewee, and the substantive content of the questions. Studies have also shown that race, religion, gender, sexual orientation and age in certain contexts can be sources of bias (Lee, 1993).

An important issue regarding question types in an Interview is their construct validity. Construct validity refers to the characteristic(s) measured, and is generally established by examining patterns of correlations among measures (Conway and Peneno, 1999). It has been claimed that different question types may measure different applicant characteristics (e.g., situational interview questions measure applicants' future intentions (Latham, 1989) while patterned behaviour description questions measure past behaviour (Janz, 1989)). To the extent that they do in fact measure different constructs, interview ratings based on different question types should be relatively independent (i.e., not highly correlated), and should show different patterns of correlations with external variables.

To have reliable data gathering form Interviews, it is suggested to have highly structured interviews (Silverman, 1993). Oppenheim (1992) argues that wording is a particularly important factor in determining reliability. He suggests that change sin wording, context and emphasis undermine reliability because it ceases to be the same question for each respondent.

Sample Selections

The full set of cases from which a sample is taken is called the population. In most cases it is impossible to gather and analyse all the data or cases available because of restraints of time, finance and access. By surveying only data from a sub-group of the population, sampling techniques enable researchers to reduce the amount of data needed to collect, and keep the result reliable and accurate at the same time (Saunders et al., 2000). The sampling methods available can be classified into two groups: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling ensures that each case being selected from the population has a known and equal chance or probability of selection. In contrast, with non-probability sampling cases of the sample are selected on the basis of personal judgement and convenience.

Table 1 Sampling Techniques Source: Saunders et al. (2000)

Sampling saves a lot of time. Sometimes the researchers collect data from the entire population but analyse only a sample of the data to save time. For this research, non-probabilistic convenience sampling was done in order to get more detailed information form the sample selected.

The choice of sample size is determined by a number of factors like the confidence one need to have in the data, the margin of errors that one can tolerate and the size of the total population from which the sample is being drawn. Given all these influences, the author decided to use convenience sampling for the research. The final sample size selected for the purpose of this study comprised of half of the year 7 pupils at a co-educational secondary school in Worcestershire. The respondents were geographically similar and their ages were between 11 and 12 years. While this method had obvious limitations in terms of regional bias, it did provide some advantages in terms of cost and time.

Ethical Implications

Ethical issues arise at a number of stages in a research and it cannot be ignored as it directly relates to the integrity of the research. According to Diener and Crandall (1978), there are four different areas into which the ethical principles can be divided into. They are:

Any research that is likely to cause any harm to its participants is unacceptable. As Diener and Crandall puts it, Harm can be a physical harm, stress, harm to career prospects or future employment etc. The ethical code says that care should be taken to maintain the confidentiality of the records and anonymity of accounts. If the respondent's identity is to be revealed, the respondent must first be kept aware of the purpose of the information as well as to whom the information will be supplied. The researcher must ensure that the information will not be used for any non research purposes.

In this quantitative research (which was done by the researcher by distributing questionnaires and doing surveys), it was easier to maintain anonymity and report findings in a way that does not allow individuals to be identified.

The issue of informed consent is the most debatable issue in general research ethics. May researchers do disguised observation in which the participants are not given the opportunity to refuse to take part in the study? They are involved whether they like it nor not. There are serious ethical dangers associated with disguised or covert observation but at the same time it has some advantages too. For example, a research participant may change its behaviour if they know they are being studied. However, these methods violate the principle of informed consent and thus should not be used unless it is impossible to obtain the essential data with some other research method.

In this research, all the participants were informed of the type of research and their permission was first taken before starting the survey and interviews.

The third area of ethical concern relates to the invasion of privacy.

In this research, when the participants agree to fill the questionnaire, they had the right to refuse to answer any question which they think may delve into their private lives or cover a topic which they find sensitive and do not want to share it in public, regardless of knowing that the anonymity of the participant will be kept.

Deception occurs when the researchers disguise their research and represent it in a different way.  In this research, all the participants were kept aware of the type of research being done and thus were not at all kept in deception.

All of the above given criteria if properly taken into account in a research design, it may lead to credibility of the research which will further lead to more belief in the findings. By and large, all these issues in educational research have been taken into consideration while designing and analysing the questionnaire along with the interviews. All of these have been kept as background considerations for some of the issues to be examined in the research.

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References and Bibliography

Bell, J. (1993) Doing your research project: a guide for first-time researchers in education and social science, Open University press

Boaz, A. & Ashby, D. Fit for purpose? Assessing research quality for evidence based policy and practice. Avaiable online at : http://www.europeanevaluation.org/docs/boaz.pdf. Accessed on : 23^rd Dec, 2004.

Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S (1982) Qualitative research in education, Ally and Bacon

Burroughs, G.E.R. (1971). Design and Analysis in Educational Research, Oxford: Educational Review.

Clough, P. & Nutbrown, C. (2000) A Student's Guide to Methodology London, Sage

Cohen, L. Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education (5th Edition) London, Routledge Falmer

Conway, J. M., & Peneno, G. M. (1999). Comparing structured interview question types: Construct validity and applicant reactions. Journal of Business and Psychology.

Denscombe, M. (1998). The Good Research Guide. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Diener, E. and Crandall, R. (1978). Ethics in Social and Behavioural Research

Hudson, P. and Miller, C. (1997) The treasure hunt: Strategies for obtaining maximum response to a postal survey. Evaluation and research in Education, 11(2), 102 -12

Janz, T. (1989). The patterned behavior description interview. The best prophet of the future is the past. In R. W. Eder & G. R. Ferris (eds.), The employment interview: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 158-168). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (1988) The Action Research reader, 3^rd Edition

Latham, G. P. (1989). The reliability, validity, and practicality of the situational interview. In R. W. Eder & G. R. Ferris (eds.), The employment interview: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 169-182). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Lee, R. M. (1993). Doing Research and Sensitive Topics. London: sage Publications.

Morrison, K. R. B. (1993). Planning and accomplishing school-centred evaluation. Norfolk: Peter Francis Publishers.

Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches

Opie, C. (Ed.) (2004) Doing Educational Research. London, Sage

Oppenheim, A.N (1992). Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement, London: Pinter Publishers Limited.

Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research (2nd Edition) Oxford, Blackwell

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2000) Research Methods for Business Students, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall: Hallow.

Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting Qualitative Data London: Sage Publications

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