The future of domestic home networking - a Research and Feasibility Study Dissertation
“A home will ultimately transform into a communication center with multi-functional domains”, a vision foreseen by Nicholas Johnson some 30 years ago, is slowly but steadily materializing into reality.
The advancements in ICT, microelectronics and embedded systems has opened the door for embedded interactive technologies to enter our homes. Modern household appliances, electrical utilities, electronics and media systems including domestic white goods and even electrical furniture, all can be functionally integrated harnessing in-house operational intelligence and can be networked to a central inter-net hub for responding to remote interventions. There exists the necessary technologies, software and hardware for such intelligent or smart homes to be feasible and continuous innovation will provide further possibilities in this field. However, studies indicate that the use and uptake of this smart home technology is marginal and predominantly restricted to demonstration models.
This research aims to appraise the future of domestic home networking as a whole considering earlier studies and assessing the current scenarios, progress & potentials of smarthome technologies.
1.0. Introduction
Nicholas Johnson (1967) commented, “a home will ultimately become a home communication center where an inhabitant will work, learn, plug into entertainments & amusements, communicate with and contribute to the society using advanced communication techniques beyond our imaginations…” (cited in James & David, 1998). This visionary statement, at that point in time, attached a very uncommon social and functional extension to the commonly perceived meaning of the home. The Future home will not only be a place where we sleep, dine and amuse rather, it will transform into a communication center, knowledge bank and a link for social contributions and interactions. Thus the future home is expected to be a multi-functional platform for us, facilitating independent & healthy living, enhancing comforts & safety, promoting better social integration & involvements, providing opportunities for education, training & employment and above all extending unparallel quality of care & assistance (Cost 219bis Guidebook, 1999). The Home environment in future needs to acquire, adopt as well master the above functions for our wellbeing. These functions call for a very dynamic and efficient home setup, which must be responsive, user-friendly, adaptive and most importantly should constitute to represent and identify with the interests and aspirations of the owner or inhabitants. Here, technology has a fundamental role to play. Proper use and application of technology has the potential to maintain and enhance the quality of life, facilitate improving human-society interactions and may obviously contribute to overall developments. Using such technologies in the domestic set-up transforms a traditional home into a ‘Smarthome’ and improves the overall functionality of the domestic environment easing day-to-day work or activity loads for the inhabitants. This is the advantage which makes the Smarthome an automatic choice for the elderly, disabled or physically challenged people (James & David, 1998). A Smarthome will have an in-house interlink with all domestic devices and services which is further extended and connected to the external internet facilities and this arrangement is known as ‘Domestic Home Networking’. Despite having so many advantages, use and uptake of this technology is reported to be marginal and restricted to demonstration models only.
This study has been taken up to appraise the future of domestic home networking as a whole taking into consideration earlier studies and assessing the current scenarios, progress & potentials of smarthome technologies. The research framework includes understanding the concepts and components of domestic home networking including Smarthomes, reviewing the status and trends of related technology domains and assessing the networking infrastructure, architecture and design requirements. Other issues like affordability, costs and any technology or socio-economic barriers have also been touched upon to conclude a comprehensive feasibility assessment of domestic home networking systems. Finally, the barriers, opportunities and other research issues identified in the course of this study have been highlighted in the conclusions.
2.0. Concepts & Paradigms - Smarthome, Ambient Intelligence & Living Environment
In general, human society, technology, market economy and even human being himself undergo change and evolution along the years (Venkatesh A, CITRO, 1996). Our primitive society has modernized into a progressive and knowledge intensive society, the old age technologies innovated to state-of-the-art technologies like ICT, embedded systems, etc., the local market economy has expanded into liberalized international economy and human beings too, developed skills, authority and enhanced overall well-being along the years. Now there remain some important questions like- how did the home we live in transform with time? Does it change at all or remain static? How does a home adopt or react to the changing human behaviors and needs? Before answering these questions, let us consider some advanced situations and outcomes, which in the first place, represent and replicate typical future human-home interactions. Suppose a person steps into the bathroom, the morning news pops up on a video screen, the mirror panel displays his weight and BMI the moment he approaches the mirror for shaving and a digital display records his pathological parameters when he uses the toilet. The body weight and statistics are then automatically processed into a balanced-diet instruction, which is then electronically transmitted to the kitchen for serving the prescribed balanced meal. While serving breakfast the fridge notices that the milk bottle goes empty with today’s breakfast along with some vegetables and instantly it sends a purchase and delivery request to the nearby departmental store for the items. While on way to office, the same person gets a call from his boss regarding some specific materials and knowing the files are stored in his home computer, he remotely connects to the computer through his mobile phone and quickly attaches it to the e-mail to his boss. Yes, the above is no more a surprise now and there exist homes at present, which are intelligent and efficient enough to automatically attend to all the needs of the inhabitants. A look at the activities showcases the multi-functional ability of a modern home and importantly it may be noted here that the person availed a range of in-house services as well as external services (Sridharan B & et al) like ordering milk and vegetables. Thus, under this advanced set-up, the functional area or jurisdiction of a home extends to cover the neighborhood, which has scope for further extension to cover the world even. This type of home is often called a ‘smarthome’, ‘extended home’ or ‘intelligent home’ (Rodden T & Benford S, CHI 2003).
The in-house functions and services such as body weight recording, lightings, etc. are basically achieved by inter-linking and synchronizing various enabling devices together to respond to inhabitant’s interests and needs and similarly the external functions like ordering milk, vegetables, etc. are materialized by linking the in-house network to an external internet hub forming a communication chain (Sridharan B & et al). Here we see two distinct domains of functioning in a modern home , the in-house or internal functions and the external or networking functions. In a broader perspective, this set-up is generally known as the ‘Networked Home’ or ‘Home Domestic Networking’ which is necessarily inclusive of both the domains of functions (James & David, 1998).
Fig-1: Transformations from Stand-lone to Integrated Services
2.1. SmartHomes- Domains & Components
Technically, a Smart home is a home, which utilizes information appliances and a home-based network to connect household appliances to each other and to the outside Internet world (Sridharan B & et al). Thus, as a prerequisite, a smart home must have all its household appliances and services inter-connectable and compatible so that they can be functionally integrated for deriving automatic services or functions symptomatic to that of Smarthomes. Figure-1 above shows the transformation of stand-alone domestic or in-house devices and utilities into integrated system or functions.
Generally, in-house setup of any home comprises of nicely arranged and usefully spaced domestic devices, furniture, utilities and other items like TV, ACs, dining tables and chairs, electric fixtures, etc. From an interior designer’s point of view, we can say a home is a planned configuration of household items and spaces i.e., inside a home we generally find different items and things conveniently placed throughout leaving gaps or unoccupied spaces in between. Thus a home is actually occupied by the inhabitants, necessary domestic items or devices and also spaces or unoccupied areas. A SmartHome is a physical domain comprising of hardware & software devices (Sridharan B & et al) and applications owned by inhabitants or owner that can be monitored and controlled via the Internet. A traditional home becomes a SmartHome when it contains one or more SmartDevices (Philips, 2004-2005) as shown in Figure-2 below. As already mentioned, a Smarthome should necessarily house smart devices or items which must be technologically compatible to form dynamic inter-links with each other as well have the functionality to be connected to the internet (Tweed C & Quigley G, 2000). This integration and inter-linking is possible when the devices or items are capable of identifying and responding to each other. This is where the advancements in technologies, ICT and specially embedded micro-electronics get a platform to assist and influence our life by rendering functionality and identity to the devices to inter-connect each other (O’brien Jon and et al, 1999). Most of the present generation household products such as a refrigerator, VCR, TV, video camera, video game console, lights, garage door, microwave oven, dog food dispenser, etc. are being produced or built with embedded technologies. In case of older vintage there are options for retrofitting and upgrading with embedded technology making them compatible to find use in Smarthomes.
Fig-2: In-house devices & Internet Links in a Smarthome
There have been several high-profile smart home projects undertaken by private citizens over the last few years. The most well-known of these has been Microsoft founder Bill Gates’ residence on Mercer Island east of Seattle (Sridharan B & et al). The home includes art frames which can display different “paintings” on demand, as well as identification badges which are handed out to guests, which can then tailor the music played in a particular room based on the guest’s preferences. Smart home technologies are also slowly beginning to make ways into common homes. Personal security, scheduling of entertainment, calling for medical assistance, providing medical assistance, are only a few of a variety of tasks that could be vastly improved with the widespread use of SmartHomes. In summary, it appears that SmartHomes will likely improve the overall quality of the individual lifestyle and hence their need.
2.2. Smarthome Management Perspectives & Options
In the perspective of Smarthomes, management basically refers to the monitoring and control of individual, or a collection of heterogeneous, devices (Sridharan B & et al). Better and efficient management appears to be one of the most important determinants which may influence popularization of this concept. Smart or intelligent home management framework is thought to be critical considering the convergence and inter-links of so many individual components (Figure-3) and systems and more so when they are sourced from a host of different suppliers and manufacturers.
To understand the management needs of SmartHomes, three categories of people or organizations have been identified who are most likely to be delegated to manage SmartHomes. In this arrangement, the home owner or the habitant belongs to category (a), the owner of a neighborhood departmental store may be recognized as category (b) and any manufacturers of items like TV, audio and other electronics may be categorized as (c). Categories (a) and (b) will be directly involved in the day-to-day management tasks whereas the manufacturers belonging to category (c) will be expected to keep on innovating and developing hassle-free and reliable smart products with improved embedded technologies so that after-sales maintenance troubles are reasonably eliminated. For example, the manufacturer of a SmartCar ought to be concerned with what features to provide for the owner to remote monitoring and control and for the auto-dealer to check, and perhaps service it, remotely (Sridharan B & et al). Outlining the management requirements of a Smarthome some of the management areas or issues that are possible to surface are listed in Table-1, next page.
Fig-3: Convergence of Individual Components
Table-1: Perceived Management Requirements for Smarthomes
User Category
Requirement
Explanation
Monitoring Check the state of any device owned.
Control Send a control command to any device owned.
Access specification Specify access controls.
Event specification Attach time and state dependent actions to devices owned.
Service Provider
Monitoring
Check the state of any device under contract. The state space to be monitored will likely be different than the one that can be monitored by an owner.
Control
Send a control command to any device under service contract. The control command set will likely be different than that for the owner.
Access specification Specify access controls to servicemen and owners.
Event specification Attach time and state dependent actions to devices.
Service assignments Assign devices to specific service personnel.
Service schedule Schedule on-site and remote maintenance services.
Accounting All finance related services.
Manufacturer
Monitoring and Control Perhaps all Monitoring and Control needs of the Service Providers will also be the needs of the manufacturers. However, the manufacturer may need special access to the devices for the purpose of servicing and obtaining performance data. This could be provided by the Service Provider.
Upgrade Device manufacturer might want to upgrade embedded software on all devices of a kind. This could also be done by the Service Provider.
(Source: Sridharan B & et al)
The above table lists some of the perceived Smarthome management needs, or requirements, of people and organizations mentioned earlier. It is reasonable to expect that individuals and organizations in the managerial roles will need to monitor and control the devices. However, their specific requirements might differ (WD 25 9XX, 2003). For example, a Service Provider might not be interested, or authorized, to monitor the channel being currently viewed by the Owner. Also, the Owner might not be interested, or authorized, to check the status of the fuel injection system inside an automobile. The Service Provider and the Manufacturer are likely to have similar requirements. However, one might or might not authorize the other to perform certain monitoring and control tasks. For example, the Manufacturer might provide a special feature in the embedded software that controls the automobile engine. Using this feature the Manufacturer would be able to download performance data. This data might be important enough to the business of the Manufacturer to not allow access to others including the Service Provider (see for example Sridharan B & et al). The Service Provider might also restrict the Manufacturer from obtaining information about the service agreement that it has signed with the Owner.
2.3. Ambient Intelligence
There is another functional enhancement possible in our home environment having Smarthome components. In the near future our homes will have a distributed network of intelligent devices that provides us with information, communication, and entertainment (Gann D and et al., 1995) and these systems will adapt themselves to the user and anticipate user needs, demands and even interests. These are basically functional add-on systems included in the Smarthome infrastructures which will substantially differ from the traditional equipments with regard to their appearance in our environment as well the manner and process of interaction with the users. This new and more innovative platform of human-computer interaction system is known as ‘Ambient Intelligence’. Salient features of this new concept are ubiquitous computing, natural interaction, and intelligence (Philips, 2004-2005). Recent developments in technology, the Internet, the consumer electronics market, and social developments indicate that this dream might become reality soon (Philips, 2004-2005).
Ambient intelligence refers to the presence of a digital environment that is sensitive, adaptive, and responsive to the presence of people. Within a home environment, ambient intelligence will improve the quality of life of people by creating the desired atmosphere and functionality via intelligent, personalized inter-connected systems and services (Tweed C & Quigley G, 2000). Ambient intelligence characteristically has some basic elements like- ubiquity, transparency, and off course intelligence. Ubiquity refers to a situation in which we are surrounded by a multitude of interconnected embedded systems. Transparency indicates that the surrounding systems are invisible and moved into the background of our surroundings. Intelligence refers to the fact that the digital surroundings exhibit specific forms of intelligence, i.e., it should be able to recognize the people that live in it, adapt themselves to them, learn from their behavior, and possibly show emotion (Philips, 2004-2005).
2.4. Ubiquitous Computing – Visions & Drivers
Computer experts have developed the notion of ubiquitous computing during the past decade which aims to provide access to any source of information in the world at any place and any point of time. This type of arrangement is possible by a huge distributed network consisting of thousands of interconnected embedded systems that surround the user and satisfy his needs for information, communication, navigation, and entertainment (Philips, 2004-2005). As Philip’s expertise indicates, this concept can be viewed as a first approach to the development of third generation computing systems, where the first and second generations are given by the main frame and the personal computer, respectively. The ongoing distribution of storage and processing may move the computer as a standalone system into the background, yet maintaining its functionality as a computing device. This development provides the consumer electronics industry with a challenging opportunity by replacing the disappearing computer with a new user experience through the addition of ambience intelligence.
The Internet can be viewed as one of the first truly worldwide ubiquitous information systems realized by mankind. By now, 2.5% of the world population is online, and in western countries the subscription rate is close to 10%. Furthermore the network quickly develops and the variety of online services is fascinating. Moreover, there is a strong economical driver given by the total yearly turnover in the market of electronic systems. In 1999 this figure exceeds 3000 billion US dollars, with a yearly expected growth of more than 10% for the forthcoming decade. This implies an enormous market volume for new electronics products of which ambient intelligent systems may take a substantial share. Finally, and most importantly, there is a social driver given by the need of human beings to feel more comfortable and at ease in the quickly developing technocratic world than they use to feel. Ambient intelligence can increase the quality time for people through novel services, and entertainment providing an enhanced user experience (Jennifer A. Rode and et al., 2004).
2.5. Ambient Intelligence – Network Component & Living Environment
An ambient intelligent home system can be viewed as a large scale distributed network of elementary computing devices that are connected in some way. The computing elements can be divided in external and internal nodes. The external nodes, which are often called terminals, account for input and output and may interact directly with the environment and the user. Examples are sensors and actuators, interactive screens, displays, and input devices for speech, handwriting and tactile information. The terminals often need to be small and handy, which introduces the need for low power electronics. This issue will become even more pronounced when people start to carry the devices with them. In this respect one speaks of wearables, indicating that electronics will be integrated into clothing. The internal nodes predominantly refer to computing elements that carry out certain network functions such as data processing, storage, and routing (Schmandt Chris and et al., MIT).
The communication network of a ubiquitous home system should meet certain requirements. In the first place it should support interoperability, which refers to a situation in which terminals are easy to add, replace, or remove (Philips, 2004-2005). An example is the IEEE 1394/HAVi network that has been developed by a consortium of consumer electronics manufacturers, including Philips and Sony. Furthermore, the network must support multiple media, including graphics, video, audio, speech, handwriting, and tactile information. Currently, much effort is spent in augmenting the Internet with some of these features, such as audio, video, and speech. Also the capacity of an in-home network should be sufficiently large, with respect to both the number of terminals that can be connected to it, and the communication bandwidth. There is also the issue of wireless communication. Here, one either envisions a situation in which small hardwired terminal networks are wirelessly connected to a global in-home network, or a situation in which the terminals are wirelessly connected to a hardwired home network. A decisive choice is still to be made (Philips, 2004-2005).
Intelligent Environments: Given the technology described, we are faced with the challenge to develop and implement applications that provide the ubiquitous home system with functions that enable easy, intelligent, and meaningful interaction with the system. This requires the design and implementation of application scenarios that bring ambient intelligence to life. The believability of ambient intelligent home systems is determined by two major aspects: the social nature of the user interface that is used, and the extent to which the system can adapt itself to the user and its environment. The social character of the user interface will be determined by the extent to which the system complies with the intuition and habits of its users. The self adaptability is determined by the capability of the system to learn through interaction with the user. The combination of human specific communication modalities such as speech, handwriting, and gesture, as well as the possibility to personalize to consumer needs play a major role in the design of novel applications and services. Finally, ambient intelligent devices need to express some form of emotion to make them truly intelligent. So, these devices must be able to detect user moods and they must react accordingly (Philips, 2004-2005).
2.6 Home as Living Space - Conception & Motivation
Three main conceptual schemes motivate our thinking in terms of the networked home. First, the networked home should be embedded in the overall concept of ‘‘home as living space.’’ This is demonstrated through the structural composition of the home based on a typology of spaces (Venkatesh & Sanjoy, 1999). Second, the networked home should capture the elements of networking in a transparent fashion. Third, the home is viewed simply not as a structure, but as a site of human and social processes central to the functioning of the family. This implies that we identify the organic elements of the home based on the typology of centers of home life.
The home as a living space may include three structural components as shown in the above figure (Figure-4) that is; the physical space, technological space and the social space. The social space consists of the members of the household, the activities performed by them in the home, the time spent on those activities, and the interactions between the members of the family. The physical space refers to the physical layout of the home and its constituent parts (kitchen, bedrooms, bathrooms etc.) whereas the technological space consists of the household technologies that are embedded in the physical space and used by the members of the family as part of the social space.
Fig-4: Configuration of Home as Living Space
This concept of spaces in a home is very significant considering the fact that the three spaces or areas mentioned above basically cater to the emotional, social, educational and other invisible human influences manifesting home as a living environment or space. These spaces are also inter-assistive in character, one enabling the other. Out of the three, physical space is the most stable one which is likely to change less in the life course of a family and while designing this, consideration needs to be given to issues like - how families live, and what activities they perform in terms of their family life (Dewsbury Guy et al., DIRC-PA71.1).
The technological space represents the total configuration of technologies in the home and the organization of the technologies within the physical space and also in reference to the social space. The technological space consists of the number of technologies in the home, the density of the technologies relative to the size of the home and people living in the home, and the marginal contribution of additional technology to the overall quality of home life. Thus, a modern home may not only have standard kitchen appliances but more than one TV set, more than one telephone, more than one computer and so on. Its density is measured in terms of the cumulative presence of the technology within the physical space, relative to the number of family members, as well as to the relative levels of use of the technology for home/family purposes.
The social space is a significant component of the living space because it defines the living space in a fundamental way. It has a direct link to the context of family life, family needs and the household activities that are performed. In a way it is the most complex of the three spaces as it involves variable elements, activities, various social actions and intermingling, emotions, etc. The social space is not a ‘‘given,’’ as the physical or technological spaces, but by its very nature displays ebbs and flows (Dewsbury Guy et al., DIRC-PA71.1). In a recent paper, Wai on Lee (2000), a Microsoft HCI scientist, used the three-space model to investigate the adoption of WebTV and the level of its acceptance into a small sample of households. In his preliminary research, the author found interesting family dynamics within the living space – degrees of conflict, as well as accord, between the spaces. His findings confirm the validity of the three-space model for designing and testing new products.
Dewsbury & et al; highlighted an important issue from the design point of view. According to this the living space can be viewed as embedding technology-based product environments and in designing products for the home, the spatial configuration may be taken into account. It is important, however, to remember that the product environments (as elements of living space) are not the same for all home-based technologies. For example, the product environment for a refrigerator is not the same as the product environment for television. What is common to both is that each has a particular configuration profile in terms of social/technological/physical space that defines its position within the home (Dewsbury Guy et al., DIRC-PA71.1).
3.0 Domestic Home Networks: Needs & Feasibility
Having discussed the concepts and components related to ‘Smarthomes’, or ‘Intelligent homes’ in the previous sections, it is understood that the traditional or conventional home is already undergoing a series of innovative changes, modifications and enhancements for extending efficient and value-added services to the inhabitants. But still we need to have knowledge on the design, safety, affordability and the user-friendliness of such modern or smarthome devices and components. This section explores to judge the feasibility and prospects of Smarthomes from the vital stand-points of home system architecture, design, networking and connectivity considerations.
“Visions of what technology can do….are rarely based on any comprehensive understanding of needs and in some cases are blatant technology push only” (Tweed & Quigley, 2000).
Home, be it a traditional one or a ‘Smarthome’, is the place where we live and on all circumstances it will continue to exist as the place we live in. Under this consideration, the most important asset in a home is its ‘owner’ or ‘inhabitant’ and any design, architecture or artifacts conceived without due consideration to the owner’s interests or wellbeing is destined to die its own death. Thus, the design philosophy for a Smarthome should be “design for the people”. This section outlines the approaches and development related to Smarthome architecture, design and network connectivity.
3.1 Control Systems, Applications & Approaches
There are three main types of home automation controls, which are individual control devices, distributed-control systems, and centrally controlled systems (DIRC-PA71.1). Figure-5 below gives a diagrammatic representation of various domestic home applications. Individual control devices manage only one appliance or function such as programmable setback thermostats, motion detectors, occupancy sensors, photocell lighting controls, and timers (for example-the VCR when programmed is also considered an individual control device). A distributed-control system uses standard electrical wiring, telephone wire, video wire, radio frequency signals, and infrared signals. Microchips must be installed in appliances or outlets to allow communication over regular home electrical wiring. A central controller is not required although keyboard entry is possible using telephones or personal computers. Homeowners can use a television set to monitor the system’s status. Centrally controlled systems route signals between a central computer and appliance controllers or sensors. This system can control all appliances whether microchips are present or not. If the controller fails, however, the whole system fails. In a smarthome system, a central control system allots incoming household electricity to a distribution unit in each room of the house. The distribution unit or network box only provides power upon request by a “smart” appliance.
Fig-5: Domestic Home Applications
3.2 Embedded (EA) & Distributed Applications (DA)
Embedded applications (EA) and distributed applications (DA) play an important role in smart device controls. In the context of SmartHomes, embedded applications are those that reside inside a SmartDevice. The software that resides inside a VCR, a Microwave oven, an automobile, CATSCAN equipment, etc., constitutes embedded applications. A collection of components, perhaps distributed over many computers across the globe, to manage a group of SmartHomes, is an example of a distributed application (Sridharan B & et al). An embedded application could be distributed. For example, most automobiles contain several microprocessors controlled by software components that communicate amongst each other to realize an automobile function. Embedded applications (EA) are intended to control a single SmartDevice and are hosted physically in some form of memory (e.g. flash ROM, atomic disk, etc.) that resides within the device to be managed. An embedded application may or may not be distributed. On the other hand, Distributed applications (DA) are collections of at least two or more components hosted on one or more computers and provide services using some variant of the client-server model. A component may be replicated to improve its accessibility. It is likely that EAs are significantly more constrained than DAs in terms of the computing resources available to them. This will likely affect their architecture. For example, it is unlikely that an EA, even though distributed, uses a CORBA 3.0 or a DCOM implementation whereas a DA could. Certainly, progress in hardware technology could change this belief. However, when compared in relative terms, an EA is likely to be more constrained than a DA (Sridharan B & et al).
3.3 Approaches to Management Solutions
There are various approaches to fulfill the requirements as listed in Table-1 however; here we examine two of the most common approaches as below:
(1) individualized solutions, and
(2) standardized solutions.
To maximize profits, Service Providers are often seen managing a diverse portfolio of appliances and components from different manufacturers (Warren et al. 1999) and this diversity in portfolio imply different types of appliances from manufacturers. Under the individualized solution approach, each manufacturer develops its own monitoring and control interface thereby increasing the likelihood of incompatible monitoring and control interfaces for the appliances under service. Such incompatibility adds to the complexity of the software components for monitoring and control and hence to the cost of their development and maintenance. In the standardized solution, it is expected to have a software infrastructure consisting of components that provide features to meet the basic needs of the three categories of users and managers of appliances. It may be noted that standardized solution does not imply a unique infrastructure, but it does imply the existence of perhaps several infrastructures for management one of which is selected for use by a Service Provider depending upon its characteristics (Warren et al. 1999).
3.4 Augmentative Technologies- Active & Passive Devices
The Smarthome is one of the application areas of modern assistive or augmentative technologies. As Briere and Hurley (1999) commented ‘A smart home is a harmonious home, a conglomeration of devices and capabilities working according to the Zen of Home Networking’ (Briere and Hurley 1999). Smarthome technology can be grouped into two main categories as – Active Devices & Passive Devices. Devices like control panels and switches, with which the home occupant will directly interact with and use are known as active devices and passive devices are devices like sensors and receivers, over which the home occupant has no direct contact, function to enable and empower the living experience of the occupant.
Fig-6: Typical Smart Device Arrangement
These devices along with other technologies and systems form four main types of augmentative technologies which when used in domestic home environment have the capability to enhance independence and wellbeing of the inhabitants (Briere and Hurley 1999). These are:
1. Assistive Technologies, which are devices or systems allowing an individual to perform a task they would otherwise be unable to do or which increases the ease and safety with which the task can be performed;
2. Adaptive Technologies, through which any system or device can be modified according to the needs of an individual so that a task can be performed more easily and safely;
3. Inclusive Designs or ‘Design For All’ Technologies are developed on the principle that devices and systems can be used by as wide a range of the population as possible.
4. Medical Devices cover all products other than medicines, which are used in the healthcare environment for the diagnosis, prevention, monitoring, treatment or alleviation of illness or injury (The Parliamentary Office, UK, 2000).
Fig-7: Arrangement of SmartHome Devices
The manner in which devices interact and are interconnected provides the functionality that can enhance the quality of a person’s life. The relationship between active and passive components enables a designer to build up a structured need derived system. Another important consideration is the appropriate level at which existing and new technologies are applied to produce the defined system (Dewsbury G. And et al, SEARCH, UK).
Fig-8: Integration of Technologies
The Smarthome technologies and their relevance in human life have been a topic of debate for a long time. According to Warren et al (1999), ‘Intelligent health care systems in the home will utilize a myriad of technologies in their implementation (Warren et al. 1999). Burley in 1999 also stressed on sensible use of technology saying ‘Smart technology is not the Holy Grail of the system of care for older people in the new millennium. But used sensitively alongside person centered care it can be a vital and valuable companion in a journey that will bring a happier, more fulfilling life to those of us about to join the silver generation’ (Burley 1999). Tweed and Quigley (2000) putting forward a very vital observation expressed ‘visions of what technology can do… are rarely based on any comprehensive understanding of needs and in some cases are blatant technology push (Tweed and Quigley 2000). Generally, the societal forces and technological push collide making appropriate technology increasingly more viable and cost effective in the process. However, over stressing on the appropriateness of technology may sometime lead to uncomfortable and complex domestic system which in any case is not what the owner prefers. Sometimes, the use and selection of domestic technology may also be at the expenses compromising with social activities, role definition and identity as pointed out by Gitlin (Gitlin, 995). Another consideration arises with the increase of radio frequency devices and the advancement of technological protocols such as Bluetooth, and WAP integration where the networking properties become significant. Importantly, information surety, security, integrity, reliability, safety, and availability, etc. Play very important role in this distributed nature of Smarthome architecture (Warren et al. 1999).
Fig-9: Requirements of New Domestic Network Technology
Figure-9 above outlines the technical requirements of a new home network technology and Figure-10 below illustrates the cost/efficiency of two different smart home systems, the EIB (European Installation Bus) field-bus and X10. The field Bus systems like EIB or Lon is normally expensive even for basic systems whereas basic X 10 system is comparatively cheaper (Dewsbury G. and et al, SEARCH, UK). However, field-bus systems enable more devices to be integrated together to work with each other to create a rich functionality and are also said to be more reliable since they rely on more sophisticated bi-directional protocols. The above graph also demonstrates that at the bisection of the technologies, the designer is required to consider which is likely to be most appropriate for the greatest time. A number of factors will influence the decision. This does not mean that X10 systems are substandard, as there is clear evidence of their utility and appropriate applicability for a number of users.
Fig-10: Efficacy of two types of Smarthome Technologies
Field Bus System configuration is the method by which an installer couples a command initiator to one or more command receivers. For simple systems such as BatiBUS and X10 configuration is achieved by setting hardware thumb wheel switches to identical address numbers. For complex systems such as LonWorks and EIB configuration is achieved using a PC connected to the bus and a graphical interface through which devices are set to communicate with one another. One such interface allows a configurer to enter the electrical points on architectural drawings and using the mouse group and assign luminaries to switches. (Allen and Dillon 1997).
EIB bus is very suited to exploitation in the rehab field for the following reasons:-
Availability of commercial products
Technology is open to third parties for exploitation
Development kits are available
Established network of training centers
Interface to M3S has been developed by FST in Switzerland
The one major drawback of the EIB bus us that the technology has so far only been applied in twisted pair medium and thus using in existing home may call for certain amount of re-wiring will need to take place. However, the technology can be applied to other media and products do exist for Infrared and Power Line media. The EIBA is also carrying out development recently (DTI-211945, 2003).
X10 is suitable for simple environmental control applications in the rehabilitation field for the following reasons:-Availability of low cost commercial products and ease of configuration and installation. However it has the following major drawbacks:-Technology is propriety and unavailable to third parties, Limited On/Off type protocol with no possibilities for improvement. (Allen & Dillon 1997).
Technological solutions can often be used in preference to conventional solutions, when conventional would be more effective. Today, we really do have the opportunity to tap into wires already in place in our homes for security and telecommunications purposes to enable constant monitoring, tracking, and transmitting of home care patient information to and from our homes. (Kinsella 2001).
3.5 Infrastructures & Architectures
The term “architecture of the infrastructure” signifies the listing of the key components of the infrastructure, the relationships amongst these components, features offered by each component, and any special characteristic of each component. In general domestic networking infrastructures should have the following:
1. Intrusiveness
2. Scalability
3. Support for heterogeneity
4. Support for secure management
5. Support for remote maintenance
6. Support for the generation of management applications
Connectivity infrastructure
The term “connectivity” in relation to smart homes and the Internet encompasses all types of communications media – including copper wiring, optical fibre, radio and infrared – that are needed to support the transmission of signals and data to and from the smart home systems that provide Internet access, telephony, personal computing, home entertainment (audio and video) and home automation. The connectivity infrastructure broadly divides into two parts:
external Connectivity to the dwelling
internal Connectivity to the dwelling
External infrastructure
The existing external infrastructure can provide homes with:
One or more telephone lines
Analogue TV and radio through an aerial
Digital TV through an aerial (“Free-view”) or via cable or satellite
Dial-up and broadband Internet access
Internal infrastructure
The introduction of a cabled network infrastructure into homes enables services such as the telephone, TV viewing and Internet access to be distributed to a number of different rooms around the home. Wall plates with socket outlets for telephone, PC and TV can be installed alongside 13A socket outlets. Audio and environmental control may also be distributed in a similar way.
Several wireless options are available for implementing the home network – including radio and powerline – which can supplement, although not entirely replace, the use of cables (DTI-211945, 2003).
Electronic services
“Electronic services” in the context of smart homes are entertainment, business and social services delivered by digital interactive TV, digital radio, mobile telephony and the Internet.
Digital inclusion
The government is keen to ensure that electronic services are accessible to all, and that disadvantaged groups should not experience inferior electronic access to public services compared to other groups. To quote from an OeE report10: “Organizations should …promote social inclusion, so that cost, skill and lack of confidence are not impediments to channel [ie Internet] use”. Statistics suggest that there is currently a social divide in the ability of people to access Internet services (DTI-211945, 2003).
Data communications
Data transmissions are typically:
Over twisted pair cable
Wirelessly using radio or infrared, or
Over the mains wiring system (mains signaling, also known as powerline)
Wireless links are not so secure as cable, they are generally more expensive and have lower data transmission speeds. However, wireless links can add flexibility and convenience, and are easier to retrofit.
1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) - PC networking; TCP/IP
2. USB
3. Firewire (IEEE 1349)
4. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)
5. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
6. Fixed Wireless Access (IEEE 802.16)
7. Mobile telephones, etc..
Table-2: Wired transmission system & protocol
Wiring topology
Two types of wiring topology are commonly used with electronic systems:
Star wiring – for computer networks and audio and TV distribution
Bus wiring – for lighting, heating and other control networks
A third topology, loop wiring, is also sometimes used with building control systems and fire alarm systems.
4.0 Security & Safety – Drivers to Smarthome Technology
Home security and safety advantages derivable from using smart technologies are in fact vital drivers encouraging up-take of such technologies. Figure-12 shows the schematics of safety links pertaining to Smarthome technology. Some safety and security features are:
Fig-12: Security Links of Smarthome Technology
Secure network topology allows the security features of the various devices to be most effective in their use.
Various Devices have varying security needs.
The devices with the greatest security needs should be within the network’s most-secure zone.
We should reduce the number of paths accessing home network as much as you can. And those paths should be controlled by firewall or VPN server.
Computational complexity or the cost for mechanisms to enhance security
Security is a primary issue when accessing electronic services over the Internet (DTI-211945, 2003). It embraces:
Security of financial transactions such as payment by credit card
Privacy and security of personal information – a particular concern when considering healthcare issues
Protection against viruses and “hacking”
Permanent broadband Internet connections should be protected by a “firewall”. A firewall is a combination of hardware and software that acts as a buffer between the internal network and the Internet (DTI-211945, 2003). It protects the internal network from being broken into by intruders or hackers. The European Commission has called for the European standardization bodies CEN and ETSI to put forward recommendations on network security. Key issues will be:
Interoperability: There are many security standards available, which often leads to problems of interoperability
Upgradeability: Security is not a static problem, but may need to be updated as weaknesses are discovered
Home users: In the near future many home users will be making new, permanent connections to the Internet for the purposes of e-commerce, information and entertainment. These users will have neither the expertise nor the inclination to apply obscure security measures to consistently prevent security breaches.
5.0 Smart home scenarios and costs
The cost of installing smart home systems can vary enormously. A typical entry level system – providing computer, audio and TV distribution over small home networks – can cost between £600 and £700 when installed in a new building using the same methods that are applied to mains wiring (ie routing cables under floors, through joists and within plaster, without any special ducting).
Systems for an “executive” smart home – with a large PC network, home theatre, audio and TV distribution (with remote channel/ source selection and control), a security network (including CCTV), lighting and heating control, etc – could cost £10,000 or more. Indicative costs for a range of new-build smart home scenarios are shown in Table 4.
Table-3: Installation costs for new 3-bedroom house
Ducting for structured cabling <£500
Structured cabling infrastructure based on Category 5e UTP cable and CT100 coaxial cable for PC networking, TV distribution and future services <£1k
Smart systems for heating control, lighting control, security, safety, etc £1k - £5k
Local Authorities, Housing Associations, etc. may save money by collaborating on:
The provision of web services and content management (eg Lincolnshire County Council have developed an Internet portal that it hopes to sell to other local authorities), and
Interactive digital TV content for local communities
Further savings can be made by negotiating with cable and satellite TV providers to make digital TV and the Internet available to tenants at more affordable rates.
6.0 Meeting user needs – Assessing the Potentials
Smart home technology offers a “tool box” of options which need to be applied selectively to optimize the costs and benefits. Target group needs may include:
Information access
Support for daily living
Emergency support
Working from home
Health and social care
Greater security and safety
Tenant interaction
Digital inclusion
Lifestyle benefits
6.1 Opportunities for Future Design Change
Historically, home automation has targeted those areas which already have a strong element of control in them, such as the automatic control heating and lighting. As with mainstream computer applications, some activities are more amenable to automation than others. Increasingly, however, the lofty goals of home automation are being eclipsed by the more modest ambitions of creating the on-line home, in which information appliances are appearing on the market that still rely heavily on human action to control them - they just provide more information about their status and how they might be bused. (Tweed & Quigley, 2000).
The entire design process is one of iteration. The initial design may be modified considerably in the process. However, the earlier those changes are made to the design, the less these changes should cost as shown in Figure-13. The design should be frozen before installation work commences. Some of the vital design considerations have been mentioned below:
Fig-13: Design Vs. Cost Opportunity
6.2 Some Smart Home Design Considerations:
Appropriate Inclusive design criteria are required before technology is considered.
A long-term view of a person’s condition should be undertaken in the assessment. If a person’s condition is to degenerate slowly than the technology will be useful for longer.
Undertaking a full user needs assessment is critical to determine if technology is appropriate to meet the needs of the person.
Assessments and judgments should consider how the person is to interact with the technology from a psychological, emotional, physical and social perspective.
Assessments should not just consider what the technology can do for the person but what it can do for all stakeholders.
The implementation of the user needs assessment by professionals requires that appropriate technology be used in the correct manner, with the correct devices undertaking the correct functions when and if they are supposed to do so.
The long-term efficacy of the technological design should reflect the needs of all stakeholders, the person(s) with disabilities, carers, and others.
Seeing technology as enabling and empowering is essential to the design process, whilst it is important to recognize that inappropriate design is disabling, debilitating and disempowering.
Specifying devices to meet the needs of stakeholders must also include specifying how the devices will interact with each other.
Technology requires regular maintenance and it is essential that the system is regularly checked to ensure it still functions correctly and meets the needs it was designed to meet.
Technology should not be considered predominantly in terms of being cost saving or a labour saving intervention; social exclusion or dependency should not result from the design.
Any guidelines developed should meet the needs of specific people. They demonstrate the conflicting requirements that the designer faces and illuminate the decision making process that produce effective and robust designs (DTI-211945, 2003).
Because of the wide range of systems and low compatibility of ‘rival’ systems, the prospective procurer of home automation and telecare systems faces an extremely difficult task. Things are improving, slowly, system manufacturers are talking to each other and integration and interoperability have become key concerns (14Tweed & Quigley, 2000).
8.5 Conclusions
To summarise, smart homes present substantial opportunities for delivering enhanced and more cost-effective web-based and technology-based services to occupants. The benefits & possibilities include:
Extended independent living
Improved personal safety, security and “peace of mind”
“Digital inclusion” – access for all to e-services and digital information
Simplified maintenance reporting
Reduced energy consumption
Flexible control of electrical devices
Trends in residential connectivity include:
Rapidly increasing numbers of broadband users connected by cable and ADSL
services, and increasing numbers connected by satellite and radio (eg through Wi-Fi hotspots)
Greater use of wireless links and networks based on the W-Fi (IEEE 802.11) series of standards as a supplement to cables
Use of Ethernet or perhaps Firewire communications for PC networking
Use of standardised building automation networks for low bandwidth control data
Distribution of analogue home entertainment signals over satellite grade coaxial
Increased integration of home networks to reduce costs, improve interoperability and
facilitate access to telecare services – eventually there may be just two digital
REFERENCES
‘’Ambient Intelligence research in Home-Lab + 365 days’, Philips Research Technologies, A new user experience, 2004-2005.
Allen, B. and Dillon, B. (1997) “Environmental control and field bus systems: a study of field bus systems and their potential environmental control application for people with disabilities”, Central Remedial Clinic, Vernon Avenue, Clontarf, Dublin 3, Ireland.
Briere & Hurley (1999) Smart Homes for Dummies, ISBN: 0764505270.
Browne Ray & Foggie Richard, DTI, ‘Trends in smart home systems, connectivity and services’, Client report number 211945, DTI-2003.
Burley, R. (1999) “Smarter housing and care for the silver generation”, paper presented at the Department of Trade and Industry Healthcare Seminars, Singapore and Tokyo, October 1999.
Cited in [Barlow James & Gann David, Electronic Working Papers Series No.18, ‘A changing sense of place: are integrated IT systems reshaping the home?’; Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, UK, 1998].
Clarkson, P.J. and Keates, S. (2001) “A practical inclusive design approach”, Proceedings of INCLUDE 2001, London.
Dewsbery Guy, Sommerville Ian, Rouncefield Mark, Clarke Karen, ‘Bringing IT into the Home’ DIRC-PA71.1, Lancester Universiy.
Dewsbury Guy, Taylor Bruce and Edge Martin, ‘The Process of Designing Appropriate Smart Homes: Including the User in the Design’, Scottish Centre for Environmental Design Research, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7QB, Scotland, U.K.,(g.dewsbury@ rgu.ac.uk).
Gann, D., Iwashita, S., Barlow, J. and Mandeville, L. (1995) Housing and Home Automation for theElderly and Disabled, SPRU and the Electrical Contractors’ Association. (Figure-1).
Gitlin, L. (1995) “Why older people accept or reject assistive technology”, Journal of the American Society of Ageing, vol. 19 (1).
Infrastructure for the Management of SmartHomes, Baskar Sridharan† and Aditya P. Mathur ‡, Software Engineering Research Center, Department of Computer Science, 1398 Computer Sciencce Building; Purdue University, IN, USA – 47906.
Inclusion of Disabled and Elderly People in Telematics: www.stakes.fi/include. [as quoted in The Parliamentary Office (UK) 2000].
Jennifer A. Rode Æ Eleanor F. Toye Æ Alan F. Blackwell, ‘The fuzzy felt ethnography—understanding the programming patterns of domestic appliances’, Pers Ubiquit Comput (2004) 8: 161–176; DOI 10.1007/s00779-004-0272-0.
Jae-Young Lee, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, ‘Common Communication Protocol (Ccp)’, presented at Itu-T Workshop “Opportunities and Challenges in Home Networking”
13 – 14 October 2005, Itu Headquarters, Geneva.
Kinsella, A. (2001) “The smart house: taking the same tele-garden path”, Telemedicine Information Exchange.
O’BRIEN JON Xerox Research Centre Europe and RODDEN TOM, ROUNCEFIELD MARK & HUGHES JOHN, Lancaster University, ‘At Home with the Technology: An Ethnographic Study of a Set-Top-Box Trial’, ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, Vol. 6, No. 3, September 1999, Pages 282–308.
Patrick R.W. Roe, Smart Homes Foundation, COST 219bis Guidebook, ‘Design Guidelines on Smart Homes’, The Netherlands, October 1999.
Rodden Tom, Benford Steve, The University of Nottingham ‘The evolution of buildings and implications for the design of ubiquitous domestic environments’, CHI 2003: NEW HORIZONS, Volume No. 5, Issue No. 1, 2003.
Research Association, Edinburgh, and published in New Technology in Human Services Sept 2001, http://www.smartthinking.ukideas.cm/Frank.pdf.
‘Smart Home Concepts: Current Trends’, Alladi Venkatesh Ph.D., CRITO, University of California, Irvine; CA 92697.
Schmandt Chris, Lee Hong Kwan, Kim¤ Jang, Ackermany Mark, ’Impromptu: Managing Networked Audio Applications for Mobile Users’, Speech Interface Group, MIT Media Laboratory, Cambridge, MA 02139.
Tweed & Quigley, 2000 [as cited in- Dewsbury Guy, ‘The Social and Psycological Aspects of Smarthome Technology with in the Care Sector’, SEARCH, The Robart Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.].
Taylor, B.J. (2001) “The Frankenstein home, would you want to live in one?”, paper presented to the Environmental Design Institute.
Tweed Chris & Quigley Gavan, ‘The design and technological feasibility of home systems for the elderly Research Project Report’, School of Architecture, The Queen’s University of Belfast, January 2000.
Venkatesh A & Sanjoy M (1999), ‘New Imformation Technologies in the Home: A Study of Uses, Impacts & Design Strategies’ Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA).
WD25 9XX, ‘Trends in smart home systems, connectivity and services’, BRE Environment, Bucknalls Lane, 2003.
Warren, S., Craft, R.L., and Bosma, J.T. (1999) “Designing smart health care technology into the home of the future”. (http://www. FutureHome.htm).
